
lllilihlii!' 



!>!' 




illlllp 

I i| 1 t jii 








f^ 



Class _^LiS-/i 

Book- /^ <^ 



CopyrightN?. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 



A NEW BASIS FOR 
SOCIAL PROGRESS 

BY 

WILLIAM CHARLES WHITE 

AND 

LOUIS JAY HEATH 




BOSTON AND NEW YORK 

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

1917 






COPYRIGHT, 191 7, BY WILLIAM CHARLES WHITE 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 

Published December iqij 



>r 



0£C 13 1917 

©CI.A481001 



TO 

SIR WILLIAM OSLER 

AND 

RICHARD BEATTY MELLON 



PREFACE 

In 1915 the Board of Trustees of the University of 
Pittsburgh, in order to produce a better and more 
properly functioning institution in the local environ- 
ment, instituted a survey. This investigation ex- 
tended in time over a period of nearly two years and 
led those engaged in the undertaking, as any attempt 
at analysis of an organization so large and so com- 
plex as that of our modern American university 
must inevitably lead, into many fields. The varied 
histories of our educational institutions of higher 
learning, their struggles, their reverses, their failures, 
their successes, and their present differences in de- 
gree of accomplishment, demonstrate the common 
comprehensiveness of the riddles which all are en- 
deavoring to solve, and make clear the relationship 
which the problems confronting the local university 
bear to the general educational problem. 

During the past few years all parts of our educa- 
tional equipment have been subjected to both sound 
and unsound criticism. Our universities especially 
have been weighed in many balances furnished for 
measurement and have fallen far short both in or- 
ganization and accomplishment of the weight de- 
sired. Simultaneously with this discovery, the con- 



viii PREFACE 

viction has been growing that quite regardless of the 
conditions obtaining at present among our universi- 
ties and equally regardless of their histories, they are 
facing a future fraught with opportunities, if only 
those who are responsible for their destinies can be 
made to see their potentialities for service. It is this 
conviction, developed by study and investigation 
and strengthened by research, that has, in spite of 
the innumerable obstacles encountered in conduct- 
ing the survey, stimulated those responsible for this 
volume to publication. While much of that which 
follows was originally projected that a single better 
and more serviceable university might be produced, 
study has bred the belief that the principles promul- 
gated admit of the widest application. Even in the 
Supplement, while an attempt has been made to 
suggest ways and means of applying these principles 
to a special field, the suggestions are in essence, we 
hope, neither local nor provincial. Familiarity with 
the local conditions alone determined our choice of a 
community. 

Needless to say, it is not purposed herein to dis- 
cuss the history and growth of education. Neither 
is it purposed to engage in any part of the warfare 
which has been carried on during the past decade by 
vocationalists and culturalists. Yet the importance 
of the effects of the vocational-cultural controversy 
renders a statement of the point of view necessary. 



PREFACE ix 

As the struggle has continued, it has become evident 
that the ranks of both belligerents are filled with en- 
thusiasts. A survey of the literature published dur- 
ing the last ten years dealing with education and the 
educational problems in America, of the minutes of 
the meetings of various state and sectional organiza- 
tions, cannot fail to impress even the most casual 
that antagonists and protagonists fall into three 
roughly classified camps: at one extreme the cul- 
turalists, at the other the vocationalists, and be- 
tween and exposed to the ceaseless fire of both the 
bewildered parents, who are concerned with the 
problem primarily as it touches the education of 
their own children, and who, confused by the amount 
of ammunition expended by the opposing forces, 
have been compelled to draw the small solace possi- 
ble from an ancient stalemate, that "Much may be 
said for both sides," and have blindly trusted prece- 
dent with an historical faith in the traditional good 
lying somewhere in the thing called "education." 
The tide of battle has ebbed and flowed, the ad- 
vantage of ammunition and popular support being 
now with one, now with the other; and the plight of 
the bewildered yet vitally concerned non-combatant 
has remained virtually the same. 

The writers believe that culturalists and vocation- 
alists both represent extremes; that somewhere, as be- 
tween all extremes, there lies a norm; that any move- 



X PREFACE 

ment, regardless of how praiseworthy it be in pur- 
pose, suffers in proportion to the extremes to which 
its enthusiasts and extremists proceed; and that 
while both culturalists and vocationalists do, as the 
layman believes, marshal much that is good about 
their banners, neither of them command all that is 
best. This study, however, is not primarily pre- 
sented as a further contribution to the literature of 
warfare, but rather as an earnest attempt at the 
solution of an age-old problem. 

Criticisms of the principles promulgated herein, 
which have been as freely invited as offered, have 
dwelt most with the novelty of the plan proposed. 
Conservatism must ever play its part. Yet in other 
fields of activity in America novelty has scarcely 
been an insurmountable barrier to progress. If our 
proposal be a novelty, as it has been heralded by 
those educators who have been approached for criti- 
cism, it is novel only in the field of education. The 
principles are ancient ones, long operative in every 
branch of scientific research. The newness lies, not 
in the principles, but in the application of those 
principles. 

In conclusion, we wish gratefully to acknowledge 
our indebtedness to all those who have given of their 
time and attention and have stimulated by oral crit- 
icism and frank expression of opinion, and to all 
who in any way assisted the survey organization in 



PREFACE xi 

carrying on its work at the University of Pittsburgh. 
Especially are we under obligations to Prof essor Rob- 
ert Palfrey Utter, of Amherst College, for his inter- 
est in and his criticism of the manuscript, to Dean 
Le Baron R. Briggs, of Harvard University, and to 
Professor Malcolm McLeod, of the Carnegie Insti- 
tute of Technology, for their helpful suggestions and 
kindly assistance in technical difficulties. 

William Charles White. 
Louis Jay Heath. 



CONTENTS 

I. The Building Unit of Internationalism . . 1 
II. The Present General Trend of Education . 11 

III. Some Present-Day Influences affecting Edu- 

cation 25 

IV. The Purpose in Education 37 

V. Analysis of Ultimates — The Basis of Educa- 
tional Reform 47 

VI. A Modifying Factor — Regional Variances 

AND THE Bents of Communities .... 58 

VII. The Unit Plan — A Unit Equipment for a 

Unit of Population 64 

VIII. The Wider Application of the Unit Plan . 73 

IX. Correlation — The University Unit, its Struc- 
ture and Governance 86 

X. The Municipal Foundation for the Study and 

Advancement of Coinimunity Education . 104 

XI. Delineation of Courses 123 

XII. Departmentalization 135 

XIII. Conclusion 149 



xiv CONTENTS 

SUPPLEMENT 

XIV. The Pittsburgh Community 165 

XV. The Demands of the Pittsburgh Community 180 
XVI. The Opportunity for the University . . 199 

XVII. General Recommendations 211 

Bibliography 217 

Index 223 



A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 



A NEW BASIS 
FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

CHAPTER I 

THE BUILDING UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 

What is the proper unit of population to be en- 
trusted with autonomy as the building unit, first, 
of a nation, and second, of an international world? 
Internationalism is the great commanding move- 
ment of modern times. Given new impetus by the 
world war, that which only a few years ago was the 
dream of theorists and visionaries is coming to be 
considered, by practical statesmen the world over, 
the surest guarantee to all peoples of the inalien- 
able rights of man and of a lasting peace on earth. 
Present developments indicate that we are moving 
toward such an era. But our passage toward inter- 
nationalism can only be a drift until we have an- 
swered this first and fundamental question which 
internationalism raises. 

The answer to this question is not to be found by 
turning the pages of history. The size of the unit 
to which autonomy has been granted in the past 
has varied with the demands of the period and the 



2 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

growth of knowledge. Neither is it possible to eradi- 
cate the divisions of the past and build anew with 
fresh and unused materials. The fact must be faced 
that, no matter what the size of the autonomic unit 
determined upon, communities everywhere must 
be taken as they exist and all effort expended to 
establish within these already present communi- 
ties the soundest principles which will project far 
on into the future the laws which will make for each 
the ultimate best that combined vision and knowl- 
edge can foresee. 

While the drift toward internationalism raises 
new questions, more important still, it focuses at- 
tention upon present problems of government which 
have been multiplying in intricacy and difficulty 
with the increase in population and the diffusion 
of knowledge. So great has the task of making ade- 
quate and uniform provision for great aggregations 
of people become that solutions have been sought 
from many angles. 

' Steadily the realization has been growing that 
the voice of a nation resides chiefly in its munici- 
palities. From the past comes the history of such 
independent cities as Milan and Venice; cities 
which led in the cultural progress of their age. Ad- 
vancement came then, and has come since then, 
with the development of autonomy in communities 
and has been largely dependent upon the degree 



UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 3 

of autonomic privilege allowed in business and 
cultural ways. From out the mass of partially suc- 
cessful experiments, of gropings and strivings, 
there has emerged evidence that warrants the be- 
lief that the soundest principle of government yet 
suggested is the unit principle; that the unit plan 
has most to offer in the way of solution for all our 
problems and can alone give definite guidance to 
international drift. 

Cities in modern times have grown to enormous 
size. The soundness of a proposal must be meas- 
ured by its inclusiveness and capacity to reckon 
with expansion. Herein lies the strength of the unit 
plan. For the principles of this ordain that, as 
population increases to a number beyond that 
which can be efficiently handled, the whole com- 
munity must be divided into smaller, independent 
units with duplication of equipment provided in 
order that each may be allowed the degree of 
autonomy which shall bring forth the best possible 
results of uniform growth and progress for those 
residing in the territory assigned to each unit. 

The acceptance of this principle would be but the 
recognition that the aim of government, of nation- 
alism and internationalism, is, above all else, to 
provide uniformly fair opportunities for all with 
due regard to the bent and demands of nations, 
municipalities, and individuals. Let us but solve 



4 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

the problem presented by municipalities and we 
shall have laid the foundations of a nation and of 
an international world, for they are but epitomes 
of larger groups. 

Whatever the flaws in the structure of the Ger- 
man nation may be, its unprecedented growth and 
its municipal development, based upon city au- 
tonomy as outlined, after the Napoleonic Wars, by 
Baron von Stein, who sought to transplant into 
Germany the free spirit of English public life and 
institutions, is the best example we have of the ap- 
plication of some of these principles. 

In 1808 Stein wrote to Hardenberg: — 

I regard it as important to break the fetters by which 
the bureaucracy obstructs all human movement, to de- 
stroy the spirit of avarice and pernicious self-interest, and 
the attachment to mechanical forms which dominate this 
form of government. The nation must be enabled to 
manage its own affairs and to emerge from the condi- 
tion of tutelage in which an ever restless and vigilant 
Government seeks to keep it. 

; In a later memorandum he says: — 

The citizens are charged with the undivided adminis- 
tration of their communal affairs. The influence of the 
State is entirely restricted to supervision, with a view to 
seeing that nothing is done contrary to the purpose of 
the State and that the existing laws are observed. 

Says Harbutt Dawson: — 

The idea which underlay all Stein's plans was a large 
decentralization of State authority, which was to add 



UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 5 

weight and importance to civic life without organically 
weakening the central power. 

The purpose of the Municipal Ordinance was ... to 
give to the towns a more independent and efficient con- 
stitution, to create for them in the civil parish a firm 
point of union, to give to them active influence upon the 
government of the community, and by such participation 
in local government to stimulate and preserve public 
spirit. 

For, as the old Germanic rhyme runs, — 

" Niemands Herr und Niemands Knecht, 
Das ist des BUrgerstandes Recht.'* 

In America the growth of the same principle is 
to be seen also in the autonomy which has been 
allowed some of our cities, especially those in the 
State of Ohio. But progress in this direction has 
been retarded, and largely by the structure of the 
Nation. The Federal Government has been chary 
of granting new and additional rights to States. 
States, ever jealous of the rights which they possess, 
have been equally reluctant to relinquish any of 
them to municipalities. And when municipalities 
have wrung autonomic privileges from conserva- 
tive State Governments, they have been equally 
loath to admit any decentralization of their au- 
thority by investing institutions and departments 
with autonomic power. And this jealousy, coupled 
with the failure of institutions, has obscured the 
fact that among the privileges of the larger units 
of population which make for community power. 



6 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

national greatness, and for ultimate international- 
ism, none stand forth more brilliantly than does 
education. And among educational institutions, 
regardless of their inability to guide and direct the 
thought of America in the past, the most poten- 
tially powerful aggregation of all is that which we 
know as the university. 

After all, it is not surprising that American uni- 
versities have not exerted the influence upon na- 
tional thought that has been exerted by the insti- 
tutions of Continental Europe. Our universities 
have been forced to cope with the difficulties pre- 
sented by a new, growing country too young to 
possess either national or educational traditions, 
and to meet the situation they have imported Euro- 
pean ideas and have endeavored regardless of their 
suitability to transplant these in the New World. 
The adoption of Germanic principles of university 
education which resulted in Germanizing the cur- 
ricula of our older American colleges was not the 
first evidence of such importation, and since that 
time the curricula, not only of the universities, but 
also of the secondary and primary schools, and es- 
pecially of the kindergartens, have been influenced 
in innumerable ways by Old- World ideas and Old- 
World knowledge. Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Mon- 
tessori are names as familiar in the nomenclature 
of American education as in European. 



UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 7 

The only tradition influencing education in this 
country which can, in any sense, be termed "Ameri- 
can," is, if it may be so characterized, the "minis- 
terial." In the beginning, with the single exception 
of the Uuiversity of Pennsylvania, the ministerial 
influence dominated the American colleges. This 
influence, as the founding of Harvard, of Yale, and 
later of Princeton and innumerable smaller colleges 
throughout New England and the Eastern section 
evidences, has always been a conservative one, cling- 
ing to the tenets of the past and receding gradually 
and grudgingly into new sections to found new in- 
stitutions for the preservation of the old traditions. 
American institutions as a whole, save those which 
have sprung forth full-grown overnight, as it were, 
have never been entirely free of this influence. Par- 
ticularly is this true of the colleges. These smaller 
units or parts of larger organizations have usually 
reached a period in their development marked as the 
parting of two ways, and they have taken one or 
the other as the ministerial tradition has weakened 
or strengthened. They have either held true to the 
principles promulgated by their founders and, turn- 
ing away from a future, have remained small and 
unimportant save in a denominational way, or have 
broken to a limited degree with traditional principles 
to become for a time the storm centers of denomina- 
tional upheaval and protest, and finally, have devel- 



8 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

oped specialized units born in a newer age, facing the 
future more freely, it is true, but still loaded with the 
ball and chain of institutional tradition. 

The government and administration of our uni- 
versities has, however, been less affected by tradi- 
tional European organization than has the curricu- 
lum. Changes in American university governance 
have been frequent, but they have, to a greater ex- 
tent, been brought about by influences outside of 
what may be termed the "university world" and 
have been made necessary by the insistent demands 
of rapidly expanding communities, increased muni- 
cipal wealth, the disappearance of apprenticeship, 
and the requirements of new and enormous indus- 
tries. Numerous experiments have been tried, but 
here as elsewhere conservatism has played its part in 
retarding the development. American institutions 
have failed to keep pace in organization with the 
growth and development of corporate organization 
in other fields. Isolation also has had its influence. 
And the meagerness of the remuneration for admin- 
istrative and academic service has assisted in forc- 
ing men qualified by inheritance, by nature, and by 
training to administer into occupations more lucra- 
tive. 

i In the main, our universities have followed rather 
than led in our national journey. Yet here and there 
at intervals, some have caught a gleam of their true 



UNIT OF INTERNATIONALISM 9 

function and have endearored with the light which 
they possess to seize their opportunities. The his- 
tory of Johns Hopkins University exemphfies the 
point and suggests the ijifluence which an educa- 
tional institution may exert communistically, nation- 
ally, and internationally. A study of the brilliant 
example of this university under President Oilman, 
an institution which is in our time the only one built 
and established on a post-graduate basis, will amply 
repay all who wish to carry on research in this field. 
The effects upon the whole community of Baltimore 
that have followed the growth of Johns Hopkins in 
that city are among the most hopeful of portents 
and indicate what may be done in other communi- 
ties. Yet despite this example, the greatness of the 
mass of our educational institutions has remained 
potential and will continue so to remain until in 
some community there shall appear men with the 
destinies of a university in charge, wise enough to 
see that this most powerful single arm of service can 
in no wise be developed as an independency, but 
only as a correlated part of the whole governmen- 
tal and educational system. 

The road to internationalism lies through the au- 
tonomic unit. The development of the autonomic 
unit is dependent upon education, and the most 
powerful factor in education is a guiding principle. 
The position of our universities makes it imperative 



10 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

that they should assume the guidance and lead in 
rather than follow progressive thought. The build- 
ing unit of internationalism is the university unit 
encompassing smaller units created for specific pur- 
poses, — units for common-school education, units 
for welfare and health for such common necessi- 
ties as infant feeding, maternity, tuberculosis, and 
charity aid. The architect, the world war, is show- 
ing us the elevation of the structure to be built, but 
the building stones must be furnished by autonomic 
units of population and must be shaped and fitted 
by the master mason, Education. 



CHAPTER II 

THE PRESENT GENERAL TREND OP EDUCATION 

However preconceived opinions may be, and how- 
ever much they may be colored by early educational 
influences, no conclusions regarding the extrica- 
tion of a people from governmental and educational 
difficulties can be drawn before a scrutiny is made 
of the modern general trend in education. So sig- 
nificant are present-day movings and stirrings that 
they must be reckoned with before any detailed 
suggestions pointing toward reconstruction can be 
offered. 

America, during the past few years, has witnessed 
much individual activity and the drafting of un- 
counted committees to study the educational prob- 
lem. Most important among these are such bodies 
as the General Education Board, founded by Mr. 
Rockefeller, the Russell Sage Foundation, the Car- 
negie Foundation, the Royal Commission of Canada, 
as well as many agents of the Federal Government 
and of individual States and communities. These 
movements and the surveys which have been inaug- 
urated and conducted in various institutions are 
most significant of the general movement leading 
to an analysis of the problem by a scrutiny of the 



12 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

causes which have brought about present unsatis- 
factory conditions. The surveys — of education in 
the State of Vermont and of Medical and Legal 
Education in America — under the auspices of the 
Carnegie Foundation exemplify the truth of this. 
. The fact has become obvious that the social 
philosophy of the American people has been con- 
tinuously and persistently changing. These wide- 
spread movements toward analysis and critical 
study have been bred by the failure of the American 
educational system to meet adequately the demands 
of this evolving social philosophy. 

One of the first great tests of the system came 
when education was made compulsory. This action 
created a demand, — a demand for primary schools, 
— and following this and forced by the graduation 
of children from these schools, demand for second- 
ary equipment. In this way compulsory education 
for eight grades created demands which extended 
through to the equipment which attempted to 
meet the demands of the secondary schools. The 
struggles of all parts of the system to face this test 
have continued for years. 

Another result of compulsory education, not so 
immediate, but no less important, was its effect upon 
apprenticeship. Compulsory education coupled 
with other causes, such as increased community 
wealth, the invention of machinery to do the work 



PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 13 

formerly done by hand labor, and the amalgamation 
of small trades, ultimately effected the declination 
of the whole apprentice system. In the beginning, 
trade unions in America were largely made up of 
ignorant, uneducated, yet in the main good work- 
men. Compulsory education forced the children of 
these workmen into schools. Then, as the effects of 
this schooling became apparent, parents gradually 
became desirous that their children should have one 
or two extra years of education. Then, as to-day, 
the majority of workmen, as a rule, were desirous 
that their children remain longer in the schools than 
circumstances or inclination permitted their parents. 
As one immediate consequence of this, the boys and 
girls no longer wished to follow the calling of their 
parents. Young children, upon arriving at the time 
when they would have been bound out as appren- 
tices in various trades, were compelled to remain in 
school. 

This decline of apprenticeship, coming as a re- 
mote result of compulsory education, was another 
social change which tested the competency of the 
educational system. When the apprentice methods 
of training became no longer feasible, a new and 
heavy burden was thrown suddenly upon the edu- 
cational system. Smug in its pharisaical position 
of superiority, dealing only with the gifted and the 
pre-professional, this system found its security sud- 



14 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

denly invaded by hordes of those students who had 
formerly filled the ranks of the apprentices and who 
demanded now that it find for them occupations 
in the world. And although it is true that the 
school has aided a few to find such occupations, it 
has, through the selective standards of traditional 
school life, functioned but crudely. 

Dr. Henry Suzzallo, President of the University of 
Washington, has succinctly stated the case against 
the former system. He says in part : — 

The whole system of schooling from the primary school 
through the college was pre-professional. The old-time 
teacher gave little thought to those who did not register 
at the school, — those who were not prosperous enough 
to take the leisure and pay the rate, those who were not 
interested in languages and books and abstract thoughts, 
those who were so handicapped in body and mind that 
conventional schooling promised little. . . . The school's 
selection, instruction, and protection, whether exercised 
consciously or unconsciously, favored the talented few. 

The difficulties with this traditionally restricted 
service of the schools is summarized as follows : -— 

The educational system sends into professional life 
more persons than are required. It gives little or no atten- 
tion to the education and distribution of men among the 
very necessary and very numerous non-professional occu- 
pations. In consequence the professional suffers from 
overcrowding and from the type of economic competition 
that interferes with the idealism of professional service. 
But the other occupations fare worse, for they suffer 
from that all round incompetency which follows the com- 



PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 15 

plete want of an appropriate choosing and training of 
men for tasks. Into the ranks of industry, agriculture, 
commerce, and personal service enter the men and women 
whose school experience has directly or subtly convinced 
them that they are partial or total intellectual failures, 
for the traditional school has unjustly measured the 
mental competencies of every type of youth by its high 
but narrow standards of pre-professional training. 

The old type of education has been aptly de- 
scribed again by the committee which, in 1910, 
reported on the Newton school system : — 

It selected, retained and educated those who were fitted 
by natural endowment and interest to profit by what the 
school thought fit to offer. Others were eliminated all 
along the way, but with little concern for the precious 
material thus forced to waste. It stood for uniformity in 
materials of education, in methods and in product. 

The countless hordes of those members of a com- 
munity who have found their occupation solely by 
chance having been cast forth as unfitted for a pro- 
fessional career and therefore only fitted for a posi- 
tion of secondary importance, are sad evidence of the 
truth of this. 

Other natural results of such a system are the 
bread lines, the soup kitchens, and much of the social 
phenomena which unemployment has brought. The 
findings published in the report of the Royal Com- 
mission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress, 
London, 1909, might, in all truth, have been written 
of America. 



16 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

We cannot believe [write the Commissioners] that the 
nation can long persist in ignoring the fact that the un- 
employed are thus being daily created under our eyes out 
of bright young lives, capable of better things, for whose 
training we make no provision. It is, unfortunately, only 
too clear that the mass of unemployment is continually 
being recruited by a stream of young men from industries 
which rely upon unskilled boy labor, and turn it adrift 
at manhood without any general special industrial quali- 
fications, and that it will never be diminished till this 
stream is arrested. 

With the march of time, however, there has grad- 
ually dawned a realization of the fact that the line of 
demarkation between the professional and the non- 
professional is a surprisingly indistinguishable one. 
Herein is to be found the cause for the activities of 
the various committees and boards. An analysis of 
the reports of these groups and individuals discloses 
that running through all the strivings are certain 
fixed principles which force this conclusion. A study 
of recent systems — English, German, and French, 
and those of the various American States — yields 
evidence of the same single desire; namely, to estab- 
lish an educational plan that shall prepare at each 
given period, from those human individuals entering 
it, groups fitted for a special function in life, and when 
adequate specialized education has been furnished for 
each group, to add as much of the cultural as is com- 
mensurate with the number of years allowed each 
individual for the preparation for his life's work. 



PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 17 

The schools of America have been slow to recog- 
nize the obligation which the passing of apprentice- 
ship and the diminution of the traditional barriers 
between professional and non-professional occupa- 
tions has placed upon them. The popular concep- 
tion of education has changed slowly, it is true, but 
surely, none the less. A new group has seen that 
the larger contribution' to individual happiness and 
social efficiency can be made only by aiding all 
rather than a chosen few to make the "transit from 
the period of education to that of responsible work- 
manship in the world." 

In various communities there have appeared 
different expressions of the same tendency, each 
modified by the bent and demand of the community 
in which the educational system is to operate. The 
accompanying chart (p. 19) will perhaps indicate 
something of this trend of modern education dur- 
ing the past quarter of a century. The variations 
are many, dependent as they are upon the physical 
characteristics of individual communities and af- 
fected also by differing laws of differing Common- 
wealths. For the present purpose, however, this 
general chart will adequately serve to illustrate. 

While the rural school or district school, as it is 
sometimes called, does not appear on the chart, its 
position in the educational scheme, important as 
it is, does not make for marked variation in the 



18 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

system. Neither does the chart include the pri- 
vate schools and so-called "finishing" schools. The 
former occupy a place somewhat analogous to that 
of the high schools or upper primary schools. The 
latter, with their student bodies composed of those 
members of society not primarily interested in either 
early vocational or higher vocational postions in 
life, may be considered as appurtenances rather 
than organic parts of the system. 

From this it will be seen that communities are all 
agreed on but six years of education — that period 
lying between the entrance to the kindergarten or to 
the primary school and the beginning of the second- 
ary school. After this six-year period, in some com- 
munities, the junior high school has made its appear- 
ance. This school includes a year or two from the 
primary and a year or two from the high school and 
segregates within its walls certain subjects which 
will lead its pupils to definite functions in life or to 
higher educational institutions. Following this is a 
series of secondary schools of which the prototype 
is the secondary or high or grammar school of the 
past. At this point the delineation of courses be- 
comes more marked, and we have the academic 
high schools, commercial high schools, vocational 
high schools of various kinds, and in addition, spe- 
cial courses in each of these individual institutions. 
These, all more or less at variance with the concepts 



PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 



19 



Age 
25 



20 



Bankers 
Brokers 
Editors 
Reporters, 
Etc. 

Teachers 
Farmers 



Shop Keeper^' '' 

Farmers^ > — 

Etc. J, 6 

Higher types 

of Artisans ' ' ^ 
Clerks ' 

Conductors 
Motormen 
Mill Workers, 
Etc. 

12 
I I 
10 



14 



Law 

School 



J unior 
College 



College 



Normal 
School 



Academic High 

Schools 

16% 



1. Graduate School 

2. Medical School 

3. Medical School 

4. Theological School 

5. Higher Vocational 



School of 
Engineer'g 



Junior 
College 



Technical High 
Schools 



Junior High Schools 



7th -9th Grade 



Secondary 



Vocational 
University 



Commercial 
High Schools 

industrial 
High Schools 



Education 



Compulsory Education for 
all children to 8th grade or to 
about fourteen years of age. 



Ag9 

25 
24 
23 



22 



Primary Schools 
Elementary Education 



Engineers 
Constructing 
Electrical 
Railway 
Mechanical, 
Etc. 
20f Architects 
_lDraughtsnen 
igJDesigners, 
I Etc. 
Bookkeepers 
Stenographers 
Accountants 
' Inspectors 
Sales People 
.Clerks 

Expert 

Artisans 
< Supervisors 
Electricians, 
. Etc. 

Artisans 
Carpenters 
Mill Workers 
News Boys 
Messengers 
Laborers^ 
. Etc. 



17 



16 



15 



14 



13 



12 



I I 



10 



Kindergarten 



20 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

of antiquity, evidence the trend. The provision of 
certain fixed types of education and such specializa- 
tion, by a careful delineation of courses, as will lead 
to an ultimate, is the educational ideal which has 
evolved. The ultimate continues to lie within the 
choice of the individual student, assisted, of course, 
by parent and teacher guides early in his educa- 
tional life. 

This development has been inspired and directed 
by the idea that, "It is the function of the school to 
educate every boy and every girl, to eliminate none 
and accept all. It fits work and method to individual 
needs, and strives to send children out of school just 
as individually diverse as nature designed them to 
be, and as the diversity of service which awaits 
them requires." 

While this has been a recent growth in America, 
sufficient time has passed to prove that a delinea- 
tion of courses starting at the end of the six compul- 
sory years, in order to secure in the time prescribed 
for study any definite result in preparing for a life's 
vocation, must continue more or less indefinitely 
through the whole period of education. The second- 
ary schools have begun to delineate for those forced 
by circumstances to leave the system at an early 
date. The parts of the equipment which attempts 
to train men for vocations requiring longer prepara- 
tion, however, have seemingly been unable to profit 



PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 21 

by the lesson furnished them by the endeavors of 
the lower schools to solve the problem for the early 
vocations. We have not yet come to realize, despite 
the activities of the new group in the early vocational 
field, that if delineation of courses is essential for the 
filling of early vocations, it must be equally essen- 
tial for the filling of higher vocations. The attempts 
made by universities to grasp the truth of this idea 
have resulted not in delineation so much as in divi- 
sion and wasteful duplications. Our universities 
have split into Schools of Education, Schools of 
Economics, Schools of Mines, Schools of Business 
Administration, Schools of Journalism, and so on, 
with the result that the idea of delineation has, to a 
large extent, been lost sight of in the inter-school 
competition which has arisen. 

With this delineation and attempted delineation 
has come a broadening of the concept of vocational- 
ism itself, little recognized as yet. For a long time 
we have been laboring under the delusion that medi- 
cine, theology, and law are not only professions but 
also higher professions. As a matter of fact voca- 
tion and profession are synonymous terms. Further- 
more, the word "higher" applied to vocations can 
only carry temporal significance. It may be used 
solely inadequately to differentiate those vocations 
which require, of those entering them, a long period 
for preparation, from those which require a shorter 



22 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

period of time. "Early" and "late," as applied to 
vocations, would possibly better serve the purpose. 

The error arising from the failure to recognize that 
"higher " has no other value than this, has continued 
to find residence in the popular conception. This con- 
ception has insisted that "higher" denotes special 
exalted qualifications, possessions necessary for an 
individual's entrance into any one of the three so- 
called "professions." This has continued to persist 
in disregard of the fact that into these late voca- 
tions are admitted, even by State license, individuals 
possessing widely divergent characteristics. Into 
the ranks of medicine are admitted types ranging 
from the low producer of illegal abortions to an 
Oliver Wendell Holmes; into the law, from the fee- 
splitting pettifogger to a John Marshall; into the 
ministry, from the hypocritical, frock- wearing fre- 
quenter of the brothel to a Ralph Waldo Emerson 
or a Phillips Brooks. Even in the so-called "voca- 
tions," we find, at one extreme, a Josiah Wedg- 
wood, and at the other, the most lowly workman in 
the potteries. 

WTio, then, shall say that there is a line of demar- 
kation between high and low, between profession and 
vocation.^ All are vocations of the living, cosmopoli- 
tan body which the educational system purposes to 
care for. All may fittingly, and without disgrace to 
any, be labeled simply " vocations of life." It is safe 



PRESENT TREND OF EDUCATION 23 

to believe that at no far distant date the ultimate 
recognition of the application of the term "voca- 
tional" to all earning professions will come. And 
when that time arrives, the knowledge that the same 
fundamental laws permeate the entire system will 
break upon the minds of all gladiators in the present 
vocational and classical combat. 

It is these tendencies, together with the failure of 
educators generally to realize the broad applicability 
of the word "vocational," which have divided those 
who are interested in education into two groups, each 
warring with, and often abusing, the other. The so- 
called "cultural" group which has come through the 
ministerial institutions of the past has endeavored 
not only to retain the ancient classical traditions, but 
also to resist even the truths presented by the present 
vociferous group in education known as the "voca- 
tionalists." The latter spends most of its argumen- 
tative power in decrying the cultural which now 
resides comfortably housed within the walls of the 
colleges and those unspecialized institutions which 
feed them. Across innumerable pages of recent educa- 
tional history these two warring factions have rioted 
waist-deep in ink, and as yet no neutral has appeared 
either strong enough to compel arbitration or clear- 
visioned enough to see that absolute victory for 
either party would mean the ultimate loss of much 
that is good in both. The impetus of the revolution 



24 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

has so obfuscated the truth that but one fact now re- 
mains clear for non-partisans — and that is, that the 
time has come for a careful readjustment. The way 
must be chosen and carefully picked between these 
warring groups, and a complete realignment of our 
whole educational system must be undertaken in 
order that that system may meet the present de- 
mands of each community so that it may take its 
proper place and fulfill its proper function in the 
Nation. Nothing can be accomplished by crying 
down the cultural, nor can any valuable results be se- 
cured by abusing those whose keen desire is for prog- 
ress even though the conception of this progress 
may be colored by unbalanced and biased enthusi- 
asm. Vocational education is bound to claim its 
proper place in the educational system of the com- 
munity, and this means that its place is one involv- 
ing the sum total of happiness and efficiency of 
approximately ninety per cent of the population. 



CHAPTER III 

SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES AFFECTING 
EDUCATION 

Cultural and vocational warfare, with its attend- 
ant conservatism and radicalism, is but one among 
many influences coloring our present-day system of 
education and making readjustment difficult. Others 
there are of equal importance, and all raise questions 
which demand definite answers before the larger, 
inclusive problem can be solved. 

Perhaps the most serious among these influences, 
and one which is at present vitiating many attempts 
at honest reconstruction, is the political. This octo- 
pus, which has thrown its sucking arms about so many 
of our American universities, has found their pecul- 
iar sustenance highly conducive to its own growth. 
Politicians, eager for office and consequently desirous 
of pleasing their constituency, have not scrupled at 
the effect which the gratification of private desires 
might produce upon the educational system. Senato- 
rial scholarships have furnished for the politicians a 
ready and not insignificant avenue of approach to the 
coveted position of influence and have aided not a 
little in placing the cross in a particular circle on 
the ballot. Nor are scholarships meted out only to 



26 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Senators. Almost any member of the State's political 
brood may share in the allotment. Rarely have the 
standards of measurement been true ones, and, when 
evil results have followed, legislative patronage, the 
fear of jeopardizing personal positions by offending 
any part of a constituency, has rendered politicians 
unwilling to make any efforts toward reform even 
though the evidence of the necessity for such reform 
has been furnished in abundance. Reforms from 
within the institutions themselves have likewise not 
been forthcoming because of the subservience to 
groups of none too well-educated and none too ethi- 
cal legislators. The American university has become 
a powerful political factor, and the larger the institu- 
tion, the greater the power exercised. An increase 
in the size of the university, therefore, has corre- 
spondingly increased the strength of this arm for 
political service. 

It has, therefore, developed that in those com- 
munities where institutional maintenance is largely 
dependent on State appropriations, the weightiest 
argument for State aid, so called, has come to be 
numbers of students. The rapid growth of State 
universities has given evidence of this, and, in most 
instances, the enrollment in such institutions has been 
swelled by competition for the supply which should 
have been cared for in part by other institutions 
of special character. These, because of their special 



SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 27 

nature, have been constitutionally unfitted to exert 
strong influence upon legislators and have, therefore, 
been unattractive as a field for political exploitation. 

Scripturally sound as the policy of the State has 
been in ordering that to those institutions that have 
shall be given, it has been educationally unfortunate 
for those members of society caught in the drag-net 
of such institutions as have for their policy quan- 
tity rather than quality. So from this situation has 
arisen the first of our questions — one which must 
be answered by the trustees of every American uni- 
versity; namely, How much shall the organization 
exert itself to increase its numbers to the sacrifice of 
intensive work in the fundamental fields of knowl- 
edge? 

Associated with this problem is the serious physi- 
cal diflSculty in the relation of the existing physi- 
cal structures to a population which increases too 
rapidly for housing. In the case of many universi- 
ties, which, owing to political influence and conse- 
quent State aid, have abnormally expanded, the 
physical plant has failed to keep pace in growth with 
the increase in numbers, and ochlesis and injustice to 
students from lack of facilities have been entailed. 
In a country where universal education is the rule, 
it is not surprising to find the university organization 
falling far below that point of eflSciency which rap- 
idly increasing numbers make imperative. The mis- 



28 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

use of space and the failure to utilize space and time 
have inevitably followed as one of the minor, but 
nevertheless important, results of unprecedented 
growth. Coupled with this, the weight of priority of 
position and occupancy has been an influence no less 
marked in lowering institutional standards, and has 
crippled eflSciency for years. For example, the School 
of Mines in the University of Pittsburgh has per- 
sisted with meager equipment and high operative 
expenses, although there has grown up in the com- 
munity not only a very eflSciently equipped technical 
school, but also a nearly completed Federal Bureau of 
Mines. The School of Mines makes as its sole claim 
for preemption of subjects, priority of existence. As 
a counter-example, the fate of the Library School of 
Drexel Institute may be cited. This school, which 
had outlived its greatest usefulness, the authorities 
dissolved. Such praiseworthy action as that of the 
trustees of Drexel unfortunately stands out, however, 
as an exceptional example of wisdom. ' '*^ 

The experiments in Gary and in New York called 
attention to the evils in that ordinance of antiquity 
which decreed that buildings should be used only 
from nine o'clock in the morning until three or four 
o'clock in the afternoon, with an hour and a half in- 
termission, and proved the feasibility of working the 
educational plant for night school and social center 
activities for many more hours. Such utilization of 



SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 29 

space to the maximum is important, not only in its 
effect upon cost of operation touching primarily the 
taxpayers of the community, but also upon the stu- 
dents and the nature of the work itself. 

Of greater importance than the saving of space and 
time were the changes which made the utilization 
possible, namely, the delineation of courses leading 
to definite ultimates. This aspect, which has pre- 
sented itself as yet only in this small yet significant 
way, has scarcely been clearly recognized. It does, 
however, offer the second question which demands 
an answer; namely. What must form the basis of a 
proper delineation so that the interests of the commu- 
nity as a whole may in no way suffer from extremists 
who would lift efficiency to the point of fetishism? 

The third question grows out of the one preced- 
ing. The providing of teachers for vocational groups 
would appear to be a duty and function of the State. 
The providing of teachers for those institutions 
which lead toward the advanced fields of education 
would appear, at least in the light of present knowl- 
edge, to be the function of the university. As al- 
ways happens, however, in the development of a 
rapidly multiplying race, certain demands are created 
quickly. Voluntary agents take up the work of sup- 
plying these demands only to create the necessity, 
at some future time, for dissociation and for co- 
operation by those institutions supported by the 



no A Ni:W lUSIS FOR SOCIAL PRO(^.Ri:SS 

(lovcniincnl, lliosi^ wliicli -should have hiul llic 
forosi;^di1, In llu* firsi i)lax*(% io j)r()vi(Io n supply for 
tlir (Icmaiul. The (pirslloii is, ilicn, How shall we 
arrive al, a corrclalion of the (llircrciit educational 
inslilulions sorvin;^ a givon coniniunity in order that 
the delinealion of courses may exist throughout the 
whole system? And also. How may we a|)portion to 
each ins! Il ution t he part of vocational work properly 
belonging to il? The discovery of a definite answer 
to I his question of dissociation and cooperation will 
nndouhtedly lift us out of many of our educational 
<liflienllies. 

Another significant influence affecting education 
nt the i)res<Mil lime, and raising another im|)ortant 
question, has grown out of the advances made in 
biological study. W(* find fre(pient evidences of 
S(Miliinenlal and nnlrained attempts i)ermeating 
whole <*(hieational systx^ms before any one is con- 
scious of what has happiMied. Tliis has been, to some 
extent, the case in the importance which has been 
j)laced upon the study of degenerate and backward 
ehildriMi. IJtH'ausc* ciM'tain j)rogress has been made 
with backward children, by special methods, the 
whole educational system has bin'ome sudiK^nly filled 
with Iheories concerning the education of all ehil- 
<lren, bas(Ml upon th(\se, despite the fact that there 
is no satisfaclory evidenc(» that methods of training 
children of arrested development necessarily apply 



SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 31 

in the training of normal children. The unrestrained 
enthusiasm which has greeted the efforts of Froe- 
bel and Montessori is a striking example of this. 
Studies have been made in play schools and have 
been carried on by those who possess small knowledge 
of biology, chemistry, anatomy, or physics, and yet 
these subjects must be recognized as of basic impor- 
tance in the study of the human. 

In all these experiments certain preconceived no- 
tions have been put in operation for small children. 
F'ew institutions in America have escaped the blight 
of this form of educational quackery, and none, it 
would seem, have fully realized that to devise meth- 
ods for adequately furthering the educational inter- 
ests of the brightest children is as necessary for the , 
progress of the race as is the provision of means for 
lifting backward children. These sporadic attempts, 
which have already been made, have not only failed 
to answer the question as to what is the best method 
of training the child, but they have also unneces- 
sarily complicated the problem of realignment. 

It may be said, in all truth, that the best way of 
educating children has not yet been discovered. Also 
it is true that so much of education is a personal 
quality on the part of the teacher, that perhaps no 
hard-and-fast law can ever he laid down for all educators 
to follow. It is not likely that the great problems 
facing the community will be solved until suitable 



S2 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

teachers with adequate knowledge of the fundamen- 
tal physical sciences are forthcoming. 

Research in biology and in chemistry during the 
past quarter of a century has bred a consciousness 
that many of the mental states of children are due to 
the secretions of internal glands, to food, ventilation, 
and freedom from disease. Perhaps, at no far distant 
date, we shall find that the thoughts we have, the 
imaginations we express, the fears we harbor — even 
our susceptibility to outside influences and our at- 
tention — can be explained only by the chemical pro- 
duction of our glandular factories. 

It is too early to speak with any authority on this 
point, but several late discoveries contain enough of 
positive fact to suggest that, in view of what may 
come in the future, caution should be exercised in 
adopting any theoretical, methodistical form of edu- 
cation. The results — of treatment in such condi- 
tions as cretinism, hyperpituitarism, and adenoids, 
of the betterment of the food and the air supply — 
stand as evidences of the variations of mental apti- 
tude which arise from these sources and intimate the 
folly of modifying education for the entire human 
race on theoretical suggestion. Delineation of stud- 
ies for groups, sifted from the less ready, chosen on 
the basis of aptitude, probably contains a better 
solution at the present time. 

Again, knowledge of the influence on the human 



SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 33 

family of extra-corporeal parasites, such as the Tu- 
bercle bacillus. Trichina spiralis, Plasmodium ma- 
larioBy tapeworm, and hookworm, which manifest 
themselves in various communities, has also forced 
a modification of views concerning low mentality in 
communities where such diseases exist. While it is 
not necessary to decry the attempts which are being 
made in play schools, it is nevertheless important 
to advise prudence. These problems should receive 
attention only after the fundamentals of health and 
education are fully provided for. 

As important as are these recent influences affect- 
ing education, equally influential is another heritage 
which has been bequeathed by antiquity. This tradi- 
tion has persistently insisted that balance of power 
in boards of trustees shall be held by members of the 
ministerial profession, and this has been the pecul- 
iar patrimony of universities and those institutions 
which provide so-called "higher education." Those 
institutions which have broken away from the dom- 
ination of this decree have usually gone to another 
extreme no less unfortunate. Consequently, to-day 
our university boards of trustees are composed either 
of a majority of ministers holding firmly to tradi- 
tional views concerning education, or of a majority 
of capitalists possessing little time to devote to their 
extra-occupational trust. In either case the boards 
have remained autocratic. 



34 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

When the balance of power in boards of trustees 
has remained with the members of the ministerial 
profession, perhaps the heaviest autocratic rule has 
been imposed. The autocracy has been the more 
complete because the president of the institution to 
whom such a board delegates some authority has 
also all too frequently been an autocrat and of min- 
isterial training. 

Wlien the other condition has obtained, the trus- 
tees, possessing widely divergent views and little 
knowledge concerning education, while still occupy- 
ing an autocratic position (the court of last appeal), 
have usually delegated their authority to two agents, 
first, to a smaller executive body formed from among 
their own members, and second, to the president of 
the institution. Here again, although power is cen- 
tered in two places, the autocracy has been none the 
less complete. The president has become supreme 
over his faculty. The executive body has become 
supreme over the policy of the institution and the 
budget which bases that policy. The president so 
situated has exercised his autocratic power to secure 
his own interests against faculty legislation which 
might jeopardize them. At the same time he has 
been fronted with the constant necessity of congeal- 
ing the opinions of the members of his board. Suc- 
cess accrues to the autocratic president in proportion 
as he interprets the ideas and views of his superior 



SOME PRESENT-DAY INFLUENCES 35 

autocratic body. And these bodies, when composed 
of men not primarily interested in educational prob- 
lems, are dominated by ideas which were prevalent at 
the time when they were passing through the formal 
educational mill. By their well-nigh absolute mone- 
tary power, they are able to force their limited views 
and preconceived notions even upon those institu- 
tions which contain experts in all fields of knowledge, 
and consequently are able to suppress development 
and retard progress. So when harmony obtains be- 
tween these forces, the president of the institution 
remains the supreme autocrat, interpreting the re- 
stricted views of the monetarily powerful group 
and, as such, is a constant menace to progressive 
thought. 

When the autocratic president and the autocratic 
executive body have come into friction and the presi- 
dent has not been able to mould opinion, another 
type of failure has resulted. In such cases the execu- 
tive body has frequently resolved itself into a kind 
of debating club upon which the wisdom in Macau- 
lay's statement, "Armies have won victories under 
bad generals, but no army ever won a victory under 
a debating society," has been wasted. Dissensions, 
suspicions, and general unsettled conditions with 
their evil consequences have followed. So it has hap- 
pened, that in America, epitomized as "The Home 
of Democracy," we find our universities, in strik- 



36 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

ing contrast to the spirit under which the American 
Nation has been developed, in the grip of autocracy. 

Truly the situation is a puzzling one. If the ten- 
ets of democracy be sound, — and there are few 
Americans who believe that they are not, — it would 
appear that the application of democratic principles 
should be made in our educational institutions — 
our training-schools for citizenship. The spectacle of 
autocratic institutions training citizens for a democ- 
racy is paradoxical enough to be ridiculous. The fifth 
question arising, then, from this is. How can Ameri- 
can universities be reorganized that they may con- 
tribute most effectively to the national experiment 
in democracy? 

It must not be inferred that the five influences 
mentioned above are the only ones which we con- 
ceive as operative in the general educational field. 
Nor are the five attendant questions the sole queries 
demanding answers before the solution of the whole 
problem can be found. There are, of course, many 
influences and innumerable interrogations all impor- 
tant enough in themselves. But we believe that these 
are so correlated that by satisfactorily answering the 
five questions herein proposed they too will be an- 
swered. Before this can be done, however, we must 
pause for a moment to ascertain the nature of, and 
the purpose in, education. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 

From time to time numerable definitions of educa- 
tion have appeared. Each has been colored by the 
age in which it was born and by the conditions 
which the state of society then existent imposed 
upon the race. And it is true that whenever and 
wherever statements of the purpose or aim in edu- 
cation have been set forth, a clearer conception of 
the ideals toward which humanity is struggling has 
preceded. 

Two races in two ages have given to the world two 
ideals. Wherever the human species is found, the 
aims of all members are alike, namely, to compass 
one or the other or both of these. Lesser ideals have 
appeared — countless numbers of them — as man 
has pushed his way farther and farther into the un- 
explored, yet all are but smaller parts of the greater 
and, when followed through to their ultimates, lead 
inevitably to these. 

All man's endeavors, all his searchings and strug- 
glings either in the eastern lands of Confucianism 
or in the western world of Christianity, are toward 
these. The Hebraic ideal of duty and the Hellenic 
ideal of beauty must continue to remain the all- 



38 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

embracing goals of human endeavor. And in pro- 
portion as man succeeds in following the two, so he 
succeeds in gaining happiness. 

Education, then, if containing aught of value, 
must perforce be appraised on the basis of its contri- 
bution to the guidance of the members of the human 
family nearer to the ultimate conception of both 
ideals and to a realization of the consequent hap- 
piness. 

The monks, who in the early centuries sealed them- 
selves within their cloister walls, saw only the ideal 
of duty through the dark glasses of a dark age. The 
road to the attainment of this ideal led, for them, 
through celibacy and the doing of the difficult and 
the unpleasant task. The knights, who broke their 
lances in the tourneys and held as their choicest boon 
the smile of the mistress whose colors they wore, 
who poured their blood on the thirsty sands of the 
Holy Land and found their happiness in the rigors of 
physical combat, were in no less degree striving to 
attain their ideal. Followers of the light of beauty, 
their ancestors dreamed in the streets of ancient 
Athens and trained their children on the plains of 
Sparta. For the monk, education was the means to 
the end, for the knight in no less degree. 

In those days the mental was at one extreme, the 
physical was at the other, and these ideals of educa- 
tion continued to be so placed until the two extremes 



THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 39 

were joined by the promulgation of the doctrine that 
the aim in education was to produce a sound mind in 
a sound body. With each new age since then a closer 
union of the two has come until at last we are able to 
see, beyond the immediate and beyond the complex- 
ities and confusions of ultimates, that the aim in ed- 
ucation is to produce neither the perfect body alone 
nor the perfect mind alone, but rather to lead man 
and the race to that happiness which can only be 
born by encompassing the all-inclusive ideals of duty 
and of beauty, that the two are inseparable and per- 
fection cannot be attained by following either one or 
the other alone. 

Perhaps it was John Milton who, by his widening 
of the application of the principles which Quintilian 
earlier advocated solely for public speakers to in- 
clude all men, first joined the two ideals. Milton 
declared that the aim in education was to fit a man 
to perform justly, wisely, and magnanimously all 
the offices, both public and private, of peace and 
war. 

Since Milton's time other ramifications have come. 
The aim in education is " to lead men's souls to higher 
things," "to train the hand as well as the head," "to 
make man a better individual, a better neighbor and 
a better citizen," "to increase man's efficiency and 
capacity for social service," — these are some of the 
definitions which have evolved. All may be true in 



40 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

toto, or in any part, but none of them include the all. 
The aim in education is to bring man nearer to the 
compassing of duty and of beauty and by so doing 
to increase the sum total of human happiness. 

The goal of human endeavor has not changed. 
Man's conception of the relationship which courses 
of action bear to the acquirement of the ultimate has 
alone expanded. The difficulties lying in the way 
of attainment have multiplied, and with this multi- 
plication has come an increase in the number of 
open roads luring the traveler to follow. 

"There is no royal road to happiness," reads the 
platitude. There are few unmistakable blazings of 
duty and of beauty along the trail to point man's 
steps unerringly and unfalteringly to the greater hap- 
piness. Members of the human family have ever 
been partial to the "short cuts" and have followed 
many of these only to find themselves led far afield 
and forced to return again and again to begin the 
struggle afresh. All evolution has testified to this, 
but it has also borne evidence that, as a thing be- 
comes useful, so also it becomes increasingly beau- 
tiful and so also does its simplicity become more 
marked. Therefore, it is safe to believe that the edu- 
cational system which, in the future, will increasingly 
provide the means for the race to attain its end will 
be a simple one, and, as simplicity is achieved in 
the means to the end, man's conception of beauty 



THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 41 

and of duty will inevitably become increasingly 
clearer. 

As time has unrolled the parchment of world- 
history, man, in spite of his wanderings and his 
yielding to the temptation offered by the short roads, 
has advanced, and, as he has neared the seemingly 
unattainable, new concepts of beauty and of duty 
and of what constitutes the greater happiness have 
come. *'Social evolution," "changing social philos- 
ophy," "the recognition of civic responsibility," 
under whatever different names it temporarily mas- 
querades, it is but the expanding of the human mind 
and the broadening of the human vision to see nearer 
and more clearly to this one ideal. 

It is a far cry, perhaps, from the beauty of the 
frieze of the Parthenon to the beauty in a public 
health contrivance, but the progress from the one 
conception to the other, toilsome and wearisome as 
it has been, has also been inevitable. The human 
mind which, in its search for beauty, found little of the 
beautiful in life, and that only in what it chose to call 
the higher arts, now finds difficulty in discovering 
that which is only ugly. The definition of the beauti- 
ful has expanded to include all those products of man 
and of nature which make for the happiness of the 
human. No longer is that only beautiful which alone 
delights the eye. That which is useful, serviceable, 
and instrumental in bringing happiness to the greater 



42 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

number has also come to be included. There is no 
reason to doubt that, in the ages to come, this con- 
cept will expand farther and still farther. Yet with 
all, we may believe that whatever our progress toward 
the realization of our ideal, whatever our advance- 
ment toward a state of universal happiness, man's 
reach will continue to exceed his grasp. 

Viewed thus, the end of classicism and vocational- 
ism, utilitarianism, and even commercialism, is the 
same. The difference between classicists and voca- 
tionalists is a difference of opinion regarding the 
means to the end, not in the end to be achieved. 
Only in the means of attainment, the methods of 
accomplishment of the purpose, lie the perplexities. 
There can be no higher aim in education than this — 
to increase the sum total of human happiness. And 
no educational system which falls short of a sub- 
stantial contribution to this end can be considered 
adequate. 

There was a time, in the history of man, when food, 
clothing, and shelter, the primal necessaries of life, 
appeared to be the goal. And while it is true that the 
provision of these still remains as essential as for- 
merly, it is also true that the widening of the concept 
has changed their position to the base, and while the 
difficulties in insuring them to the added members of 
the human family have multiplied, this has long since 
ceased to be the compassing aim in education. No 



THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 43 

system which holds to the provision of these as its 
ultimate can now be adequate. The stage of mental 
development which once so ordained has now thank- 
fully been passed. 

The question which must be faced then is, What 
system of education can be evolved which will con- 
tribute most substantially to the increase of the sum 
total of human happiness? Already we have seen 
that this total cannot be increased solely by enlarg- 
ing the capacity of the individual; that if we are to 
succeed, we must progress by opening the way for 
all. Progress itself is measured by its lowest bound- 
ary as well as by its highest. 

Throughout America, of late, has gone up the cry 
that the present system of education is in no way 
adequate, that the products of the system are only 
insufficiently equipped to take their places in the 
world. This truth applies not only to those who have 
been compelled by force of circumstances to leave at 
the lower points of departure, but also to those fa- 
vored ones who have been allowed to continue in the 
system even as far as the graduate and the profes- 
sional schools. The system has endeavored to meet 
this difficulty by forming combinations between the 
educational systems and the industries. By such 
combinations, known as "cooperative courses," stu- 
dents pass from mill to school and back again during 
the progress of their passage through the school. 



44 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

That this plan has not fully coped with the diffi- 
culties is attested by the development within our 
industries of special courses of training into which 
graduates of our technical schools and universities 
must go for a period of from two to four years before 
they can be considered properly equipped to assume 
any position of responsibility within the industrial 
organization. The evil in this is apparent. The pro- 
cedure not only constitutes an exploitation of the 
university product by the industries, but also is a 
serious indictment of the whole educational system. 

There can be no doubt that the sum total of hu- 
man happiness would be tremendously increased if 
the products of our educational system came out at 
given points, determined always by the capacity and 
resources of the individual and the demand of the 
community, adequately equipped with sufficient 
knowledge to enter at once into whatever field of 
activity the student has elected as an ultimate, at 
some time earlier, in his educational career. Nor does 
it seem excessive to charge that it is the duty of the 
educational system to furnish its products with the 
equipment necessary for a taking of the proper place 
in the community, to fit its students to be self-sup- 
porting and desirable citizens, to wed both the voca- 
tional and the cultural, in order that those who come 
forth may be able to provide a living for themselves 
and for those ultimately becoming dependent upon 



THE PURPOSE IN EDUCATION 45 

them, and at the same time to school the individual 
in the duties of citizenship; or, in other words, to 
make a man who shall be a vocational specialist and 
at the same time a latitudinarian. A vocational 
speciahst that he may earn; a latitudinarian that he 
may richly live. Only in this way can the sum total 
of human happiness be substantially increased and 
the aim in education be realized. 

The promulgation of a new theory for educational 
advancement must ostensibly have its primal cause 
in the inadequacy of the present system. The dan- 
gers in attempting to change any historically estab- 
lished plan must not be minimized. The gravity of 
attempting to alter the educational system which 
effects so widely must not be underrated. Too 
many experimenters have already forced their theo- 
retical ideas upon the trusting public. And while the 
failure of these attempts stimulates to action, the 
magnitude of the possible effects of change advises 
caution. It is, therefore, the hope that the plan 
proposed in the pages following may assist in extri- 
cating us from our difficulties, and the faith in the 
simplicity of the scheme and the soundness of the 
principles upon which it is based, that have urged 
this production. The largeness of the results ob- 
tained would, of course, be dependent upon the de- 
gree of success of the plan, but the nature of those 
results, whether they be great or small, would, we 



46 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS * 

are confident, be only beneficial. Furthermore, the 
preclusion of evil results also gives us courage to 
raise still another voice in the wilderness of educa- 
tional endeavor. 



CHAPTER V 

ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES — THE BASIS OF 
EDUCATIONAL REFORM 

If the aim in education, defined in broadest terms, 
is to increase the sum total of human happiness, 
analysis to determine first the nature and second the 
factors of happiness would appear to be the only 
safe process to employ preliminary to the establish- 
ment of any educational system. Furthermore, if 
the passing of time disclosed the fact that a system 
thus established functioned but indifferently in fur- 
thering the purpose in education, re-analysis to dis- 
cover the source of error would again seem to be the 
practicable procedure. Chemistry, that greatest of 
all sciences, has taught us that reconstruction by 
synthesis to trustworthy resultants must be pre- 
ceded by painstaking analysis. 

Man in the primitive state, an isolated individual 
dependent on his own resourcefulness, attains fullest 
independence. Discovering by analysis the requi- 
sites for happiness of such a being, in such a condi- 
tion, was not a difficult task. Food and usually shel- 
ter and later clothing expressed his demands and 
most of his desires, and the provision of these placed 
small burden upon any educational system. 



48 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

History has, however, demonstrated that man 
was not destined to remain in his primitive state of 
independence. The tendency has always been for 
individuals to gather into communities, and these 
in turn to grow larger and larger. The effects of this 
evolution upon man have been marked. Men have 
become first interdependent and finally almost com- 
pletely dependent upon the factors in communal 
life. Governmental restrictions and the demands of 
one's neighbors have become most important in lim- 
iting personal independence. An individual's happi- 
ness has thus become increasingly dependent upon 
the happiness of the community, and the requisites 
for the individual's happiness have in like measure 
been modified and augmented by communal require- 
ments. 

The world has long been familiar with the simple 
demands of simple communities. The individual 
living in such a community must give from his own 
time a sufficient amount for the performance of the 
various duties imposed by communal life. So few 
may be these duties that the training of the indi- 
vidual to perform them places small demand upon 
the educational system. In fact, so small and simple 
may be the community that little or no educational 
system may be required. 

Size ever makes for complexity. As communities 
enlarge, therefore, the more complex become their 



ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 49 

structure and their demands, until the most com- 
plex educational equipment is required to meet the 
demands of the largest communities. 

As the demands of an enlarging community be- 
come more complex, the demands upon the indi- 
vidual residents increase. In like ratio also the 
requisites for the happiness of the individuals mul- 
tiply. The educational system forms an essential 
part of the equipment necessary to any given com- 
munity to promote the happiness of its indwellers. 
In proportion as it meets the increasingly complex 
demands does the system prove its adequacy or 
inadequacy. Here lies the test of our present system. 

In America, during the past fifty years, municipal- 
ities have grown too rapidly to be either natural or 
orderly. As a result they have outstripped in their 
demands the supply of educational equipment re- 
quired to provide happiness for the individuals con- 
stituting their body politic. Indeed, in all candor 
it may be said that the present system has not, in 
any satisfactorily organized way, taken cognizance 
of the demands of rapidly enlarging communities. 
Despite this, such demands form the market for the 
products of our schools, and the laws of supply and 
demand which govern and shape the development 
of our industries must, in the end, be seen to apply 
equally to this greatest of all industries — the sup- 
plying of men and women properly trained and 



50 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

equipped to take their various places in the com- 
munity. 

No systematic attempt has ever been made, in 
America, either to analyze the complete demands of 
a community or to take steps to prevent the glutting 
of certain fields of the market. Industries, it is true, 
have unconsciously analyzed some of the require- 
ments for limited vocational groups, and have been 
partially successful in forcing this knowledge upon 
the resisting schools, but farther than this there has 
been little progress. One has only to examine the 
alumni records of our schools of engineering to see 
how many trained for engineering work have passed 
into other fields of endeavor. In fact, one exagger- 
ating cynic has pointedly remarked that about as 
many engineers continue to pursue engineering work 
after their graduation as class poets continue to 
specialize in the field of poetry. "What has become 
of our class poets?" facetiously asked this recent 
questioner. "Wliat becomes of the graduates of 
our various schools of higher vocational training?" 
might be asked with equal pertinence and far 
greater seriousness. The alumni records tell but a 
small part of the story. And what is true in this 
particular higher vocation is equally true in others. 
Again it would seem, therefore, that if the aim in 
educating is to increase the sum total of human 
happiness, an analysis of the demands of a commu- 



ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 51 

nity must form the soundest basis upon which to 
build an educational system within any given area. 

The varying occupations which constitute the 
demands of a community, when discussed in terms 
of the individual forming a part of that community, 
we choose to term "individual ultimates." Again 
speaking in terms of the individual, it is evident that 
happiness can first be substantially increased by 
directing the individual's choice of an ultimate to 
such a one as actually exists as a demand of the 
community. In other words, an analysis of the de- 
mands of the community, while of first importance 
to a sound system of education, does not constitute 
the complete task, and would not, in itself, be suffi- 
cient to insure the greater happiness to the greater 
number. Coupled with such an analysis, there must 
also be a tabulation in order that the public, to be 
educated, may know what the market conditions in 
given occupations are. 

In addition, at some time early in the educational 
career of each individual careful supervision must 
be exercised over his choice of an ultimate in order 
that when he emitted from the system at any given 
point, he may be able to find awaiting him the 
first essential for his happiness, namely, a position. 
The individual having made such a declaration as to 
his ultimate guided by the knowledge obtained by 
making a tabulation of the community's demands. 



52 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

it would then become the function of the educational 
system to provide him with those essentials that 
would command the highest market value immedi- 
ately at the time of his issuance. Viewed in this 
way, the immediate object in sending the individual 
through the system would be to equip him for his 
function in life. This function includes the under- 
standing of his individual, his family, his group. 
State and international relationships, and in pro- 
portion as a man understands and fulfills his func- 
tion, will the larger contribution to the sum total of 
human happiness be made. 

To repeat, the first purpose of an analysis such as 
has been suggested would be to determine the req- 
uisites for community or group life. These, when 
ascertained, must be analyzed more and more care- 
fully, until a knowledge has been obtained suflacient 
to direct an intelligent beginning of a realignment 
of the educational system to produce a system that 
will lead each one of those who enter it out at the 
given point that the member elects — provided 
always the demand exists for that particular ulti- 
mate — fully equipped for his life's work. 

After requisites have been provided for, there 
should follow a careful analysis of other needs 
which are not, strictly speaking, requisites, but 
which are nevertheless added in greater and greater 
numbers as human knowledge increases, and which, 



ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 53 

in varying degree, contribute to the gross happiness. 
Following this backward, step by step through the 
demands, should come an analysis to ascertain what 
constitutes the essential equipment of the individual 
and later what constitutes beneficial equipment not 
primarily essential. 

The complexities which a proposal such as this 
suggests are not as serious as they would appear on a 
superficial approach to the subject. Those that fill 
the mind with awe, as it contemplates our huge, 
unwieldy, and overgrown municipalities of the pres- 
ent time, fall away when thoughts revert to the 
smaller communities of which the larger ones are 
but multiples. 

As has been seen, an analysis of the composition 
of communities leads finally to the individual mem- 
bers. Synthetically speaking, these members are 
associated in smaller groups or families located in 
homes or institutions, rearranged daily by occupa- 
tions and spread out again later into groups possess- 
ing similar educational functions and characteristics. 
Where those groups are segregated and separated 
by intervening distances, an analysis of ultimates 
would be an extremely simple process. Likewise, if 
partitionment were to precede the process of analy- 
sis in the larger communities, the main mass of 
difficulty would soon disappear. In other words, if 
the work of analysis of the ultimates of the larger 



54 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

aggregations of people be reduced to a study of 
small individual groups, the analysis of the whole 
might be accomplished quickly and thoroughly. 
Then, by tabulating the findings in the smaller units 
and by gradually correlating these for larger and 
larger bodies formed by the uniting of the lesser 
components, knowledge would be obtained of the 
complete demands which any community, no mat- 
ter how large, presents for supply to the educational 
system which purposes to take care of it. Only be- 
cause we have not followed, in our methods of organ- 
ization, our highest intelligence in the arrangement 
of the machinery with which we attempt to provide 
for the demands of our large communities, does the 
problem at first glance appear to be so complex; 

The success of divisional autonomy and respon- 
sibility throughout military and large business organ- 
izations should long ago have suggested that this 
was probably the best form of government for hu- 
man control. Had we recognized this, and had we, 
in our large municipalities, retained the knowledge 
that there was a unit of population easily govern- 
able, and had then multiplied this local autonomy, 
we should never have fallen into the severe straits 
in which we find ourselves to-day. Also, had this 
course been followed, it would have been easy in 
each small unit to obtain a tabulation of the ulti- 
mate demands of any community and to use this 



ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 55 

knowledge in providing the equipment which would 
produce for such a community a supply of ade- 
quately fitted human individuals. What, in a more 
or less careless way, we attempt to do on a small 
scale, to-day, in compiling such meager statistics 
on various subjects as are asked for by special organ- 
izations is a step in the direction, but we have never 
yet, it would seem, seen the applicability of the 
principle to our large communities. 

Exceptions to this are to be found only in experi- 
ments which have been conducted in special, and 
consequently restricted, fields, and these have been 
made conspicuous as much by their isolation as by 
their success. Most of these endeavors at unit 
analysis have been carried on in the furtherance of 
public health and welfare. 

An organized, intelligent effort at the realignment 
of the educational system from this point of view 
would require a most carefully detailed study of all 
the interdependent and dependent demands of the 
individual dwellers in the community and the most 
cautious application of the principles evolving from 
the knowledge gained to the system of education. 
The fact that markets have been so glutted, in the 
past, by the present system, strengthens the belief 
that such an analysis of the community would form 
the only rational basis upon which to build a sound 
foundation for an adequate educational system for 



56 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

any community in the future and should precede 
any change in the educational equipment already 
existent. 

One of the chief difficulties, if not the main diffi- 
culty, encountered in promoting such a plan would 
be ignorance, for despite the fact that no marked 
progress has been made in any of our modern sci- 
ences prior to an analysis made by the human mind 
of the greatest ultimate phenomena, we are only be- 
ginning to sense the tremendous importance of the 
principle involved. One need only to be a tyro in 
chemistry — the most fruitful of all our sciences — 
to appreciate that whenever contributions to prog- 
ress have been made, they have been preceded 
always by an analysis of ultimates. An analysis, for 
instance, of the albumens, the living ultimates of 
life, has formed the foundation of our present new 
visions in the field of biological chemistry. In 
short, this principle of analysis of ultimates has 
been the inherent nature of progress in all ages, de- 
spite our inabihty to apply it to other than special 
fields. 

In considering the proposal for such an analysis, 
the fact also must not be lost sight of that ultimates 
reside in all individuals comprising a community 
and range from those held by the most brilliantly 
intelligent members of the family to those of the 
lowest criminal apd degenerate. The undesirable 



ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATES 57 

lowest we would endeavor by our educational sys- 
tem to eliminate. The desirable highest we would 
strive to reproduce as rapidly as possible. The 
analysis then would include the great mass, approx- 
imately ninety per cent, who belong to the groups 
asking only from eight to fourteen years of educa- 
tion, as well as the remaining ten per cent with tre- 
mendously varying ultimates who may ask for a 
lifetime of education, as a preparation for and a 
concomitant to the fulfillment of their functions in 
the community. 

In conclusion, then, we would suggest, first, that 
the community which purposes to be in the fore- 
front of the next generation should begin an imme- 
diate reconstruction of its governmental equipment 
in order to enable it to collect through certain feas- 
ible units the information which would constitute 
an analysis of the ultimates for the whole commu- 
nity, and second, that these figures acquired in the 
units be carefully tabulated and correlated for the 
community, and that upon this knowledge the foun- 
dation of its educational equipment be built and 
modified. 



CHAPTER VI 

A MODIFYING FACTOR — REGIONAL VARIANCES 
AND THE BENTS OF COMMUNITIES 

To the mind which dwells upon the feasibility of such 
a project as the analysis of a community's demands; 
the tabulation of the findings; the shaping of indi- 
vidual ultimates to form a supply for such demands, 
and the analysis determining the equipment neces- 
sary to fit the individual to function properly in his 
ultimate capacity, one fact becomes immediately 
apparent — namely, that throughout the Nation re- 
gional variances exist, and that these would modify 
any results obtained by such analysis. 

The larger conglomerations of people in the 
United States, or in any other country, when viewed 
broadly, possess outstanding peculiar characteristics. 
These are more or less known even to minds of small 
compass the world over and serve to individualize a 
region. In America, broadly speaking again, each 
of its vaguely defined divisions possesses charac- 
teristics more or less peculiar to itself. Each divi- 
sion, in turn, splits into individualized sections, and 
these again divide into individualized municipal 
regions. 



A MODIFYING FACTOR 69 

Occupational and industrial characteristics are 
unquestionably most important agents in individu- 
alizing communities. New York, Boston, New Or- 
leans, San Francisco, St. Louis, Detroit, Chicago, 
and Pittsburgh among our greater cities possess 
reputations, each distinct. Travelers from foreign 
lands, superficially viewing America only from the 
rear platforms of observation coaches, have been 
impressed by these regional variances perhaps more 
forcibly than they impress the inhabitants. And 
yet, generally speaking, even to the native, the 
mere mention of a name is sufficient at once to call 
to mind the gross characteristics. Pittsburgh, for 
instance, standing as a center of the iron and steel 
trade based upon its underlying resources of coal, 
oil, and gas, has become known and characterized 
the world over by these particular industries. Such 
outstanding peculiarities of our American cities are 
based largely, of course, upon natural resources and 
geographical conditions. These factors are mainly 
responsible for our regional variances. Such pecul- 
iarities, for present purposes, we have chosen to 
term "the bents of communities." 

If we proceed farther to analyze any given com- 
munity with its individual bent we find that each 
unit constituting our municipalities has its own 
peculiar characteristics. In the community of Pitts- 
burgh again, for instance, with its distinctly indus- 



60 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

trial bent, we find Polish Lawrenceville, Italian 
Hazelwood, and Negro and Jewish Herron Hill. 
Pushing into the suburbs we discover that the indi- 
vidual peculiarities of such outlying districts as 
Homestead, McKees Rocks, and Etna are apparent 
to all as the first gross cleavage of the larger area 
known as the Pittsburgh cosmopolitan district. 
The same conditions in varying degrees obtain in all 
our municipalities the country over. In those areas 
of gross cleavage we find the peculiar bent deter- 
mined largely by the tendency of the human family 
to congregate in groups having common interests, 
sometimes occupational but more often social. 

Such an analysis as has been suggested in the pre- 
ceding chapter would increasingly disclose these 
regional variances. Furthermore, if we analyze our 
communities on the basis of their bents, we are 
forced to conclude that any educational system, to 
serve adequately the interests of the given commu- 
nity, must perforce reckon with the special charac- 
ter or bent of that community. Our educational 
system of the past has consistently failed so to reckon 
to any marked extent. 

An examination of the curricula followed by the 
public schools throughout the United States dis- 
closes that despite marked regional variances, sim- 
ilarity is their most outstanding characteristic. Ac- 
cording to present views, in the large, those needs 



A MODIFYING FACTOR 61 

which are considered necessary to train the mind and 
lead the youthful Bostonian to the greater happi- 
ness, are equally beneficial to the child who swings 
his books along the corridors of the schools in Sacra- 
mento. Our public school curricula, as they exist at 
present, appear to be the only universal panacea 
that the human mind has ever discovered. Nor 
does this similarity cease with the primary and sec- 
ondary schools. University and college catalogues 
from East, West, North, and South exhibit few 
fundamental differences either in courses of study 
offered or in emphasis placed upon various branches. 
Those who hold tenaciously to the cultural decry 
this state of affairs. "This is an age of specialists," 
they aver. "The nature and complexities of our 
civilization demand speciaUsts," reply the vocation- 
alists. And even the most ardent advocates of the 
cultural concede that there is a grain of truth in the 
statements of the latter. But with all this conces- 
sion, our educational institutions which aim to train 
either the cultural or vocational specialists have con- 
sistently refused to become specialized themselves. 
This situation is almost as paradoxical as that which 
we have already noted in the government of our 
universities, where we have autocratic organizations 
training citizens for life in a democracy. 

If the increasing dependency of the individual 
upon his neighbors is making specialization a neces- 



62 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

sity, surely regional variances and the bents of com- 
munities must be determining factors in this proc- 
ess of specialization. 

Our educational system should supply not only 
the universal demands of the smaller units of which 
our populace is made, but should also supply the 
demands which exist for certain peculiar ultimates. 
These, obviously, in all cases could not be provided 
in each community, but each community could pro- 
vide a supply for its peculiar demands. The func- 
tion of a given unit would be to provide first for the 
demand which that unit has in common with all 
other units, and then to provide for as much of the 
special demands as the equipment of the unit and the 
unit itself could bear. For other special demands, 
a unit would perforce cooperate with its neighboring 
units, for just as the individual units of a commu- 
nity vary, so do the demands of the larger cooperat- 
ing units differ. Regional variances and community 
bents, therefore, would not in themselves be the 
insurmountable obstacles which they might appear 
on first thought. Furthermore, it is conceivable 
that were we to depart from geographical lines and 
to congregate all communities on the basis of their 
bents, realignment itself would not be a complex 
process. Only when these smaller units of peculiar 
bent were welded into larger units of population 
would the delineation of the bent of the larger aggre- 



A MODIFYING FACTOR 6S 

gallons require the most painstaking labor of those 
engaged in making the analysis. 

At the present time there is more variety in our 
unity than there is unity in our variety, and while 
this is recognized, we have nevertheless endeavored 
to foster a uniform system of education which makes 
no marked attempts to recognize the demands 
which regional differences must place upon it. All 
things considered, it seems the essence of truth to 
maintain that the only uniformity possible in a 
national educational system must be in the methods 
of analysis employed: namely, the division of the 
Nation into regional or community units, and the 
subsequent subdivision of these into smaller units 
both for purposes of obtaining the necessary statis- 
tics concerning the community demands and for 
assisting various other active agencies which must 
operate in conjunction with the educational system, 
each in its way in proportion to its success, increas- 
ing the sum total of human happiness. Any uni- 
formity other than this must, in the end, prove dis- 
astrous. Unity in variety cannot be secured to any 
marked degree until we thoroughly understand the 
variances in our unity and provide the necessary 
equipment for each regional imit and for each lesser 
unit that the larger unity may be secured. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE UNIT PLAN — A UNIT EQUIPMENT FOR 
A UNIT OF POPULATION 

As has been previously pointed out, it would appear 
that the perplexities in the problem of analyzing 
the demands of a community would disappear were 
attention focused upon the smaller units of which 
the larger are but multiples. Among the first requi- 
sites, then, would be the determination of what con- 
stitutes the unit of population which can be most 
efficiently handled in order that the equipment 
necessary for the handling of such a unit might also 
be ascertained. The moment this discovery is made, 
the process of caring for the entire community 
would be a simple one, inasmuch as it would neces- 
sitate simply the duplication of equipment for the 
given unit of population to be handled within the 
given area. 

The principle has been so long a part of industrial 
progress that it is surprising that it has not gained a 
greater influence in the general conduct of human 
affairs. Yet, when we realize that less than one half 
of the whole American Nation is under census study 
for such important occurrences as birth, mortality. 



THE UNIT PLAN 65 

and disease, we understand how slow has been the 
progress of this simple economic precept even in the 
restricted fields of public health and welfare. At 
the same time it is equally true that only by the 
correlation of its smaller units can a nation obtain 
for itself the proper foundation upon which to recon- 
struct its future. 

Once the size of the regional unit is determined, 
knowledge gained by an analysis of the ultimates 
would determine the equipment which the unit of 
population would demand. 

Two requirements are immediately placed upon 
this primordial unit of population. First, it must 
measure up to a certain standard designated for 
all communities — a standard, however, varying as 
the progress of knowledge in the State of which the 
unit is a part prescribes; and second, because the 
given unit is one of the components of the larger, 
it must fulfill State, national, and international 
requirements. Furthermore, the unit should be 
allowed complete autonomy to raise itself to meet 
these requirements, and also to develop within itself . 
all those features making for the fulfillment of the 
highest desires of the populace residing within its 
limits. This autonomy should extend to its under- 
taking of a union of its interests for rarer and rarer 
demands with its neighboring small units and for 
the carrying of these to the point provided by State 



66 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

sanction. This might be furthered by a provision 
by the State of uniform methods of procedure, but 
here again uniformity should be tempered always 
by the revelation of its effects. There should run 
through the whole a saneness and an elasticity 
which would permit new communities to progress 
without too much domination and restriction by 
higher formulae. Perhaps this form of organization 
with its resultant elasticity contains the secret of 
human welfare and is in reality but the application 
to our whole welfare problem of that departmental- 
ization which has furthered the development of large 
business organizations. 

One argument which has been advanced against 
the success of such a proposal is that an inordinate 
amount of trust in the members of the human family 
would be required. There can be but one answer to 
such an objection, and that is that if our educational 
system is not to provide a populace worthy of trust, 
since trust is essential to the greater happiness, the 
system is in itself futile. Some restrictions would 
of necessity have to be raised against unwarranted 
developments in order not only that neighbors 
might be protected from individuals, but also that 
individual units might be safeguarded against the 
encroachments of neighboring units. This could, 
however, we believe, be easily accomplished by 
prescribing certain fixed demands — standards to 



THE UNIT PLAN 67 

which the individual units must rise in spite of all 
the autonomy allowed them. 

Having arrived by an analysis of ultimates at the 
knowledge upon which to build a unit equipment 
for a unit of population, it would become necessary 
to proceed to the correlation of these smaller units 
again into units of larger and larger type. This 
process would inevitably carry beyond municipal 
limits, and in many instances beyond State limits, 
and ultimately even beyond national limits and 
boundaries, — for just as one unit impinges upon 
another, so one country impinges upon another; and 
finally, we might, with the simplicity of department- 
alization which is evident in the proposal for a 
unit of population, arrive at a principle which would 
operate even through a period of internationalism 
which may be imminent. 

It is conceivable that if we depart from geograph- 
ical lines and congregate all the communities on the 
basis of regional variances and community bent, a 
realignment of the educational system and the pro- 
viding of a unit equipment for a unit of population 
would not be difficult. As we have seen, no realign- 
ment could be justifiable unless a careful analysis of 
ultimate demands, and an equally careful tabulation 
of the analysis, preceded it. The resulting aggre- 
gations, however, could, we believe, be adequately 
cared for by putting into effect a reconstruction of 



68 A NEW BASIS FOE SOCIAL PROGRESS 

the entire educational system based upon what we 
have chosen to call "departmentalization." 

Concerning departmentalization, since that pro- 
posal is dealt with more fully in a later chapter, we 
need only state here that by the term is meant not 
only the division of human knowledge into fields 
such as has been done to some extent already, but 
also the abolition of those arbitrary lines drawn 
across the educational system, without reference to 
the capacity of the student, which now separate the 
parts of the equipment which handle the instruction 
in the various fields. Were this done, the depart- 
ments would in consequence stand continuously and 
without arbitrary time divisions from the lowest 
point of the system to the highest. We believe that in 
no other way can the requisite elasticity be gained. 
The elasticity resulting from such departmentaliza- 
tion would allow both complete freedom for the in- 
dividual and for the bent of the larger and larger 
aggregations which would be correlated for the pur- 
poses of the community educational system. 

A necessary part of the equipment for any given 
regional unit of population would be, of course, a 
university. And when one arrives at this part of the 
educational equipment which proposes to furnish 
the so-called "higher education" for the larger units 
of population, one is faced with the most complicated 
of all the problems of the educational plan. 



THE UNIT PLAN 69 

The struggles to make our present university 
equipment fit the demands of the time might be 
amusing if the results were not so disastrous. The 
secret of the modern university's failure is undoubt- 
edly in most instances this, that in no place has 
there been a realization of the fact that each edu- 
cational institution is created for the purpose of 
fulfilling a demand, and that a knowledge of the 
knowledge demanded can only be found by a care- 
ful analysis of the ultimates required by the human 
family residing and fulfilling its life's function in the 
community. Each university, especially since it is 
the servant of the largest single unit of population in 
the country, should have, first, the requisites pro- 
vided for it, and second, a knowledge of the bent of 
the community which it is to serve in order that its 
relation to other universities of the nation in which 
it is situated may be properly determined. 

One objection which has been offered to this 
proposal has been to the effect that the existing 
institutions would be fearful concerning their own 
present and future welfare, and would scarcely wel- 
come any plan which would in any way curtail their 
advancement. The reply to this criticism is that the 
present educational equipment is still far from ade- 
quate and the plan need, therefore, carry no fear 
to any educational institution where adequate rea- 
sons for its existence are found at present. The 



70 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

results upon the institutions would be a sharper 
delineation of their regional functions in order that 
they might advance more rapidly than they have 
been advancing in the past. The staple community 
demands would remain as now, or would multiply 
in proportion as the population increased, and this 
tax upon the institutions providing the supply 
would continue as now. In addition, by following 
a peculiar bent, institutions would not only supply 
this staple community demand, but would supply 
for the rarer and rarer demands of the Nation. 
Their student bodies might, as to-day, be composed 
of students drafted from all parts of the United 
States and from all nations of the world. The princi- 
pal difference would be, however, that the institu- 
tions would stand definitely as individualized instru- 
ments of supply for definite demands, rather than 
as general factories of supply for general demands. 
The gain to existing institutions would, therefore, 
far outweigh any small peculiar loss. 

As has been pointed out, the demands of a com- 
munity, when considered in terms of the human 
members, constitute individual ultimates. With all 
these ultimates the educational system has to deal. 
Each educational institution within the given unit 
would form a part of the unit's equipment. Each part 
of the unit of educational equipment for the unit of 
population would fit for certain ultimates. As the 



THE UNIT PLAN 71 

aggregation to be served increased in size, the ulti- 
mates would increase in number and variety. This 
increase in the demand for ultimates might be nat- 
ural and gradual, or, as often happens at the present 
time, rapid and unexpected. The founding of new 
industries creates a sudden demand for certain ulti- 
mates, which demand may not have formerly existed 
to any large extent in that particular community. 
Growth and demands alone could determine the 
amount of equipment which any unit would require. 
Increasing demands, whether gradual or rapid, 
could alone determine the necessity for additional 
equipment. Therefore, it would be impossible at 
present even to tabulate for any institution within 
any unit all the equipment required for the training 
of the members of the unit adequately to encompass 
their individual ultimates. Analysis alone could fur- 
nish this information — an analysis of all ultimates 
ranging from those possessed by individuals of low- 
est mentality to those elected by individuals capable 
of the highest mental achievement. 

Neither can definite answer be made to the ques- 
tion. What constitutes the highest mental achieve- 
ment.^ Here we are again dealing with a variable. 
A plebiscite of France has given the badge of honor 
to Louis Pasteur, whose contributions to knowledge 
ranged from those which resulted in the reconstruc- 
tion of the silk and wine industries to those which 



n A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

protected animals from chicken cholera and humans 
from rabies. Other groups would honor those emi- 
nent in government, in generalship, or in philosophy. 
The question is, of course, unanswerable. A retro- 
spective examination of past achievements reveals 
but variances in judicial opinion concerning the 
value of each. But this does not in the least mili- 
tate against the soundness of the principles proposed, 
for hope of higher achievements must be the promise 
of the future. It is to our happiness and advan- 
tage that the highest mental achievement cannot be 
defined. 

The unit proposal — a unit equipment for a unit 
of population — is, therefore, none the less practi- 
cable because the farthest ultimates cannot be de- 
fined. Since all functions which the individuals of 
the human family perform, both in isolated and in 
communal existence, must be dealt with by the edu- 
cational system, the plan admits of the widest ap- 
plication. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE WIDER APPLICATION OF THE UNIT PLAN 

In various quarters in the past the unit plan has 
received some attention. In the field of common 
school education, especially, the application of the 
principles has been attempted and the experiment 
carried farthest. And while complete success has not 
been attained, the results have shown the principles 
to be both sound and cogent. 

The reasons for the partial failure in application 
here are easily discernible. In the first place, the full 
potentialities of the plan have never been perceived. 
Progress has, therefore, been more a groping toward 
the light than a steady march under a clear guid- 
ing idea. In the second place, the population to be 
served has always been too large for the equipment 
provided. And third, the existence of private in- 
vaders in the field, which prevented the exercise of 
arbitrary control, helped to balk the endeavor. 

These private invaders were not necessarily hostile 
to the unit plan. It must be remembered that the 
idea itself was never clearly presented; also that the 
situation was complicated and the issue clouded by 
the seeming necessity for educating to some extent 
on the basis of class distinction and segregation. The 



7i A NEW nVSTS FOR SOCIAL PROCRESS 

rise of [\\c prlvalr scliools was due in largo measure 
to I Ins jippareni necessity and to the more iin])()r- 
tanl fael llial. the j)nl)Iie schools were not equipped 
tofuneliona(le(|uately. Privaleseliools appeared be- 
cause I he n(vd for I hem existed. They flourished and 
waxed slrong aslon«^as the need j)ersisled. And they 
began to decline when the need for them begjin to 
<liuiiuish. Thai the luvd diuiinished and is si ill di- 
minishiug has been due i)riniarily toevolulion rather 
than lo any fault of the private schools. As a rule, 
these insl itul ions have ui)held the traditions of the 
educalional propaganda of which tluMr own incep- 
tion was a i)a,rl. The causes for the decay are to be 
found rather in the growth of the whole system of 
compulsory education; in the discovery that only by 
general taxation could the equipment required to 
Jiandh* education be provided; and in our willingness 
and ability to submit to such taxation. Thus have 
public schools been improved, and thus have the pri- 
vate schools been forced to take a lower and lower 
position. They can no longer be considered as seri- 
ous competitors for the leadership in education. 

The private schools a])])eared before the unit plan 
for education was seriously t>ronudgated or the prin- 
ciples involved clearly gras])ed. They have failed to 
maintain their position because, to a certain extent, 
th(* way to cooperation with the regular forces in the 
field who were struggling with the unit idea was not 



WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 75 

made clear. Many of them are still failing to dis- 
cover the position which yet, by riglit of function, 
belongs to them, and are, by constant curtailment, 
striving to postpone the day when bankruptcy shall 
forever close their doors. Others, more progressive, 
have attempted to attach themselves to universities 
as preparatory institutions. The course pursued in 
either case is largely determined by their inability 
or al)ility to see that the complete application of the 
unit plan — the idea which is growing — would not 
necessarily spell doom for all private educational 
institutions. Private schools may and probably will 
continue to exist without injury to the educational 
system or harm to the unit organization as long as 
there is existent a universally applicable law of social 
distinction creating demands to be supplied. The 
way to new life leads through correlation and adjust- 
ment; the way to death, through competition. The 
private practitioners cannot compete with com- 
munity provision beyond the seventh grade. 

As we have said, the principles of the unit pro- 
posal have been those applied in the developing of 
common school organization, and despite the inabil- 
ity of organizers to see the full potentialities in the 
plan, the principles themselves have been proved 
sound. Attempts made to widen the application, 
however, to other parts of the educational system 
have largely failed. And because of the failure, such 



76 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL rROGRESS 

gross wastes as exist in many of our municipalities 
at the present time have resulted. 

In the higher fields of education stronger privately 
endowed invaders have appeared, many of them 
better equipped to carry on the work in certain 
fields than the publicly endowed occupants. Usu- 
ally when the application of the unit principle has 
been attempted in such cases, it has been frustrated 
by personal ambitions reinforced by traditional 
opinion that priority of occupancy in any field of 
educational endeavor, regardless of inferiority of 
equipment, constitutes sufficient reason for refusal 
to retract. 

Particularly is this true in Pittsburgh, for example, 
where such an influence has been most potent. Upon 
one side of the street there exists a large endowed 
institution which vies for students and competes 
with a large semi-state university across the way. 
Great waste here caused by duplication of courses 
and equipment has been most apparent. Attempts 
to apply the principles of the unit plan by adjust- 
ment and correlation have been made, but have 
tlius far proved futile. Even the most noteworthy 
of these — the investigation carried on by Professor 
C. R. Mann, a comparative study of the University 
of Pittsburgh and the Carnegie Institute of Tech- 
nology — came to naught. 

In the report which Professor Mann made, par- 



WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 77 

ticular emphasis was placed upon wasteful duplica- 
tion. And since the situation is, in reality, general 
rather than local, it seems advisable to quote a few 
paragraphs from the *'Mann Report" as revised 
May, 1915: — 

A study of the lists of subjects of instruction at the two 
institutions shows that the most serious dupHcation of 
work at present occurs in the more advanced courses in 
the engineering schools. Here both institutions give work 
in highly technical subjects to relatively few students. 

It is, however, evident that there is soon going to be 
serious duplication in the teachers' courses in manual arts 
and domestic arts. Both institutions are now engaged 
in building up very similar courses in these subjects. 
Both are also developing teachers' courses in fine arts and 
music. ^ 

And again on a later page : — 

That there is considerable wasteful duplication at pres- 
ent is shown by the fact that at the University last fall, 
out of 66 courses being given in the engineering school 
31 had less than 10 students each. At the Institute 
this year there are 18 classes out of 186 with less than 10 
students each, and 32 more with less than 15 students 
each.^ 

And Professor Mann concludes : — 

The considerations thus far presented show clearly that 
at present there is wasteful duplication of work in the last 
three years of the engineering courses. These fields of 
instruction now offer opportunities for useful cooperative 
effort. 

» Mann Report, 1015, p. 8. « Ihid., p. 17. 



78 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Both institutions are now trying to develop teachers' 
training courses in fine and manual arts, domestic arts, 
music, dressmaking, and the like. 

At present the University has a department of educa- 
tion for this purpose, but very inadequate equipment and 
facilities for practical work. The Institute, on the other 
hand, has splendid equipment for practical work in these 
subjects, but lacks a well-coordinated department of 
education. Cooperation in these fields would therefore 
seem to be particularly desirable before further waste- 
ful duplication begins. Neither school has any practice 
school of its own, but both give prospective teachers ex- 
perience in the public schools of the vicinity. Under these 
conditions it is diflficult to see how either school can make 
any very serious contribution to the solution of the press- 
ing problems of industrial education. . . . ^ 

If the Institute and the University could, by friendly 
consultation, bring their work in this field of activity into 
helpful coordination, not only would it result in the imme- 
diate strengthening of both and of the city school system, 
but also Pittsburgh would soon become a center of edu- 
cational investigation and enlightenment second to none 
in this country.2 

Painstaking as was Professor Mann's study, and 
clearly set forth as were the evils in the few para- 
graphs which we have quoted, little or no adjustment 
or reconstruction resulted. And the two preceding 
volumes of the report of the survey of the University 
of Pittsburgh furnish ample proof that the waste 
and duplication still go on at this later time. And 
this condition is true in any number of other com- 

» Mann Report, 1915, p. 18. « Ibid., pp. 20, 21. 



WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 79 

munities in America and testifies to the need for 
the fullest application of the unit plan. 

In fact, the application of the principle of a unit of 
equipment for a unit of population which has been 
herein promulgated, if made consistently to the edu- 
cational system, is applicable to all institutions 
which have to do with the provision of education for 
the individuals of any community in the Nation. 
Furthermore, so great are the potentialities in the 
idea that the same principle will apply in the solu- 
tion of all problems which concern themselves with 
human welfare, since welfare itself is dependent 
largely upon the spreading of knowledge and the in- 
creasing of the capacity of the race to understand 
how living conditions and all factors which make 
for the bettering of community health are conjoined 
with the general development of the human mind. 
Especially is this principle applicable where a pater- 
nalism must be exercised by the State in protecting 
individuals against their own ignorance and against 
the mistakes and invasions of their neighbors. 

A specific application of this in the field of pub- 
lic health will perhaps more clearly explain what is 
meant. 

There are a number of maladies more or less gen- 
erally affecting the human race. These vary some- 
what with regions, size of community, poverty, and 
state of civilization of the district. It may be that 



80 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

the whole group of infectious diseases, — common 
colds, bronchitis, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, 
whooping-cough, — the social diseases, — syphilis 
and gonorrhea, — and other parasitic diseases, such 
as tuberculosis and pneumonia, are common mala- 
dies of the human family and necessitate attempts 
for uniform care, inspection, and provision by a 
government actuated largely by the spirit of pater- 
nalism. The same provision is necessary also in deal- 
ing with such biological problems as infant feeding 
and maternity, care of the teeth and the eyes and 
various physical defects. Responsibility for the care 
of these has, in the past, been assumed, as a rule, 
largely by voluntary organizations and has been 
accepted by the Government only in a more or less 
perfunctory way, drastically or leniently, according 
to the character of the administration, with little 
thought given to the equipment necessary. 

The great evil in our system at present is unques- 
tionably the maladaptation of the equipment to the 
demands. The equipment has no elasticity and in no 
satisfactory way meets the existing conditions. We 
believe that in all these problems the application of 
the law of a unit equipment for a unit of population 
would dissipate most of the trials of modern govern- 
ment. Especially would this be true, if a degree of 
local autonomy were allowed the unit in the utiliza- 
tion of its equipment. For instance, with the dis- 



WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 81 

appearance of one malady, the equipment for that 
might readily be used to supply any new demand 
which might make its appearance. At present it is 
not uncommon to see institutions struggling to keep 
their heads above water long after the specific thing 
for which they were created has ceased to require 
their services. In one large city a beautiful smallpox 
hospital lay idle without occupants because the de- 
mand for the place for smallpox patients had, as a 
result of preventive measures, ceased to exist. At the 
same time there was the most pressing demand for 
the buildings to house far advanced consumptives. 
However, because the money which paid for the 
erection of the hospital had been demanded for a 
specific purpose, three years were required to impress 
a stupid city government with the necessity for using 
the smallpox hospital equipment for tuberculosis. 

It is quite conceivable that the equipment for all 
public service in connection with these infectious 
diseases may, in the future, be closely associated with 
and may be a part of the common-school equipment 
for a given unit of population. The inauguration of 
school physicians and school nurses, school provision 
for food, bathing, and inspection of teeth, all point to 
a future amalgamation of these two important equip- 
ments. And, indeed, where the application of the 
principle has become most significant in its opera- 
tion it seems but a step to the complete aijialgama- 



82 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

tion of the service for family supervision and school 
management. The smaller detail of provision of 
physical equipment for the handling of this service 
is a matter only of secondary consideration, since it 
entails only the expenditure of moneys. Were this 
amalgamation brought about, the necessity for more 
than one statistical study of the district would be 
obviated. WTiere child life and family sickness are 
so intimately associated with such supervision as 
occurs in school life, the necessity for such an amal- 
gamation, aside from being the likely result, at times 
presents itself as so pressing a demand that one 
wonders why it has not before this become a uni- 
versal expression of the intelligence of the Govern- 
ment. If we were to apply the unit principle to all 
matters of public health and welfare, we should pro- 
vide, on exactly the same basis as we supply to-day 
our common school for the universal education of 
the children of the unit of population, an elastic or- 
ganization which would provide efficiently and uni- 
formly for the care of a given group of people 

Perhaps the smallest unit of population in the 
whole unit system would be formed for the purpose 
of caring for such maladies as have been mentioned 
above. The plan would necessitate the securing of 
complete and efficient knowledge of every household 
and room and their human contents throughout the 
region over which supervision was exercised. This 



WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT PLAN 83 

unit would conceivably correspond in size more or 
less to the common-school unit of the present time, 
and as in those units, so in the case of public health 
units also, there would exist a necessity for correla- 
tion into larger and larger units for universal de- 
mands. 

Pursuing the thought a bit farther, we come to the 
more or less rarer demands in the way of human sick- 
ness. For example, cancer, chronic cardiac, arterial, 
and nephritic diseases, various operative procedures 
in the field of abdominal and pelvic surgery would 
naturally require sparsely distributed equipment to 
provide for them. It is conceivable that the equip- 
ment might correspond to the high-school grouping. 
And the still rarer demands which may be exempli- 
fied by nutritional and metabolic disturbances and 
rarer operative procedures might be fittingly pro- 
vided for by an equipment analogous to our colleges 
and universities. 

Furthermore, wherever we touch the problem of 
human welfare, we find that it is becoming naturally 
more and more intimately associated with the edu- 
cational and research activities of the community 
and must, if we read the tendencies of modern times 
aright, be a part of the general equipment necessary 
for the protection and evolution of the human race. 
Therefore, as part of the equipment provided for 
this field of public welfare, there would be, first of all. 



84 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

a research institution maintained by the general 
funds. To this could be entrusted the task of discov- 
ering new knowledge. 

While this principle is just as applicable to health 
as it is to education, it is equally applicable to char- 
ity, housing, family instruction, food inspection, and 
many other endeavors for human betterment which 
are struggling for expression in local, State, and na- 
tional organizations. In short, we believe that the 
plan, if applied, would prove to be the strongest 
agent yet discovered for fitting communities to take 
their place in national and international relation- 
ships. 

In conclusion, it must be said also that while a 
number of local applications have been made in vari- 
ous communities, the principle cannot be applied 
on a very wide scale until it becomes a part of the 
governmental control of communities. Such an ex- 
periment, as has been outlined in the "First Survey 
Report of the Dispensary Aid Society of the Tuber- 
culosis League of Pittsburgh, — an Intensive Study 
of Eight City Squares,*' published in 1916, gives 
ample proof of this. Care must be taken also, 

AS HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN DONE IN THE PAST, TO 
MAKE SURE FIRST OF ALL THAT THE UNIT TO BE 
HANDLED BY A GIVEN AMOUNT OF EQUIPMENT IS 
NOT TOO LARGE. WhERE UNIT EXPERIMENTS IN 
PUBLIC HEALTH HAVE FAILED OR ARE FAILING, THE 



WIDER APPLICATION OF UNIT FLAN 85 

CAUSE FOR FAILURE IS TO BE POUND IN THIS, THAT 
THE UNIT CHOSEN TO BE SERVED BY THE GIVEN 
EQUIPMENT IS NOT SMALL ENOUGH. The whole 

matter, furthermore, is a principle inherent in the 
broader principle of municipal autonomy. 



CHAPTER IX 

CORRELATION — THE UNIVERSITY UNIT, ITS 
STRUCTURE AND GOVERNANCE 

In attempting to suggest the practicability of a wide 
application of the unit principle to fields which are 
not primarily the concern of this study, we have 
traveled a little aside from our main course. In 
pointing out that, having arrived by an analysis of 
ultimates at the knowledge upon which to build a 
unit of equipment for a unit of population, it would 
become necessary to proceed to the correlation of 
smaller units into units of larger and larger size, we 
have overleaped an important step in that course. 
Therefore, it now becomes necessary for us to return 
to our special field and to consider this omitted step. 
Especially is this necessary because the means in large 
measure determine the method, and before we can 
proceed to argue methods of correlation, we must 
carefully determine the agent to be employed, or, 
in other words, before discussing methods we must 
ascertain where the analysis of ultimates, in any 
large community which undertakes to rebuild its 
powerful educational system, should begin. 

As has been pointed out, the ultimates of com- 
munities differ materially as do the communities 



CORRELATION 87 

themselves differ in their bents. These variances, 
and the fact that furthermore the larger communi- 
ties differ in their composite mental attitudes toward 
various subjects which are proposed to them, com- 
plicate the task of choosing the proper agent. In 
a later chapter the suggestion is made that a Muni- 
cipal Foundation for the Study and Advancement of 
Community Education would be the fitting gover- 
nor of the agent chosen. And also because of the 
educational nature of the task which the agent must 
perform, it would seem wise to suggest also that the 
agent itself should, in most cases, be the university, 
and that the foundation should find residence within 
the institution. This arrangement would seem most 
practicable because of the fact that within the univer- 
sity the most complex ultimates are dealt with, and 
also because of the position which the university 
theoretically, if unfortunately not in fact, occupies. 
It is fair to conclude that if a university possessed 
a clean-cut conception of its function and took for 
its object the increasing of the sum total of human 
happiness of all members in its contributory com- 
munity, and attempted under systematic leadership 
only those things which pointed directly to future 
betterment, preceding such attempts always by 
cautious education following a most painstaking 
analysis of ultimates, the community itself would in 
time become the most perfect building unit not only 



88 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

of the future nation, but of a possible future inter- 
national world. 

While it is thus conceivable that the university 
might be the agent in one community, it is also pos- 
sible that in another the city government might be 
best fitted to act in such a capacity, so greatly do 
groups for service in different communities vary 
because of the conception, outlook, and vision of 
those in leadership at different times. In other 
communities such an organization as the Chamber 
of Commerce or one or another of the various social 
organizations might be chosen as the agent of the 
foundation. Regardless of residence, however, were 
our agent to undertake the task of analysis partition- 
•ment and correlation, the beginning must, perforce, 
be an educational one. As time went on, the insti- 
tution performing such a service might find it ad- 
vantageous to turn over the function, which tem- 
porarily it had assumed, to the Federal Government 
or to the government of the community or commu- 
nities which it purposed to serve. Whatever organi- 
zation were selected for such a task capacity for 
leadership would, however, inevitably be a determin- 
ing factor. The assumption of educational repon- 
sibility by any one group at any given time in the 
past has adequately demonstrated this. Eventually 
this function suggested might reside in that body 
which has the autonomic power in any given region. 



CORRELATION 89 

and this power would, of course, be delegated in 
its fullest application to those smaller and smaller 
communities forming larger and larger aggrega- 
tions. 

For present purposes, no matter which organiza- 
tion undertook the task here outlined, the prin- 
ciple would be found to work through the larger 
and larger correlations for cooperative purposes 
until the division of the nation into a number of 
units would be reached. If again the university be 
chosen as. the agent, these divisions might fittingly 
be termed "University Units." It is conceivable 
that perhaps our largest educational unit would be 
the university unit so named. Applying this univer- 
sity unit plan to the nation, we would then have the 
United States finally composed of a given number of 
university units adequate in number and equipment 
to meet the demands of its population. The bound- 
aries of these units would not be confined by any 
present municipal or State lines, for upon each uni- 
versity unit there would be a special demand which 
would determine in large part the special character 
of the institution. Each university unit would have 
as its basis in the final analysis a group of building 
units of population provided with an equipment 
sufficient to meet the universal demands. The bent 
of the community also, since it in a large measure 
determines the demands or the ultimates, would 



90 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

also determine the character of the members of the 
educational system operating within the unit. 

The character of the entire educational system 
would receive a certain bent. Not only this, but def- 
inite bents which might not be generally applicable 
to the whole system might be given to individual 
departments. For example, tropical diseases might 
furnish opportunities and might shape the bent of 
medical departments in southern universities, but 
would have no determining influence upon the bents 
of university units located in other climates. 

Confining our discussion to the problem of corre- 
lation in a single university unit, we begin with the 
consideration of a unit equipment for educational 
purposes. Each university unit would have as its 
foundation first of all an equipment adequate for 
the provision of primary education necessary to sup- 
ply fully the unit of population contained therein. 
Each unit, which at the present time may be cur- 
tailed by existing municipal, county, or State lines, 
would eventually disregard any such arbitrary divi- 
sions in order that uniform provision for the entire 
population might be accomplished. Each of these 
smaller units would have as its duty, in common 
with the larger units with which it was correlated, 
the attainment of prescribed standards below which 
it might not fall. < . 

In Chapter VII, it will be remembered that we 



CORRELATION 91 

have already pointed out that one requirement 
which would be immediately placed upon the pri- 
mordial unit of population would be that it must 
measure up to a certain standard designated for all 
communities. But it must also be borne in mind 
that this standard would vary as the progress of 
knowledge in the State of which the unit was a part 
prescribed. This prescription by the State has come 
in modern times to be a prerequisite for an edu- 
cational system, be that system correlated or dis- 
sociated, and inasmuch as the success of the unit 
plan would in large measure depend upon the 
amount of correlation obtained, the establishment 
of such a prescription and the filling of the same 
would become necessary to the full application of 
the principle itself. In other words, it would be 
necessary for the State to determine a minimum 
standard below which no educational institution 
might fall. The degree of efficiency and progress 
above this elemental standard of State prescription 
which each smaller unit might attain would largely 
be determined by its unit of equipment or the 
amount of autonomy granted. Progress would be 
marked from time to time by the gradual raising 
of standards set. 

In the future as in the past raising of standards 
would be based upon the progress exhibited by the 
best communities. We have already seen that the 



92 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

progressive community which resulted from the es- 
tablishment in the town of Gary of an individual- 
ized plan of education has already caused States and 
communities to modify their standards in accord- 
ance with the knowledge gained by this experiment 
in an Indiana town. The model school experiment 
actively under way at the present time in Teachers 
College at Columbia University under the auspices 
of the Rockefeller Foundation, if it should prove 
successful, would facilitate still further changes in 
standards, all of which would mark a point below 
which no community in the future might fall. And 
so we progress. As each community attained the 
prescribed standard it would be necessary to begin 
the application of autonomic privileges, the reckon- 
ing with the influence of community bent and the 
assumption of responsibility in the given area to 
pursue in the best way the educational methods 
best adapted to the population resident therein. 

Having secured local autonomy in the matter of 
primary education it would become necessary next 
to approach the more diflScult problem of bringing 
together individual units to form the first correla- 
tion for secondary educational privileges and attain- 
ments. By virtue of the State or Federal law under 
which autonomy the primary building units would 
operate, there would of necessity be what has been 
referred to a number of times in the foregoing pages, 



CORRELATION 93 

a careful analysis of the population to be served 
by each educational unit and the provision of some 
central office in the foundation to which the results 
of such an analysis might be sent. 

A tabulation of these various analyses would form 
the first basis upon which our given units might 
jointly operate. Those units would first of all be 
correlated for communal secondary education whose 
demands and bents showed the more striking re- 
semblances. The building equipment would be de- 
termined largely by the demands of those seeking 
correlation. In the same way, by bringing together 
a number of secondary-school units, the various 
secondary-school regions would be correlated for 
higher education, and so on until provision had been 
made for the demands of the entire population 
within the university unit — i.e., for all who leave 
the educational system at different points, not 
merely for that percentage of the population which 
finally makes its way into the halls of the university 
itself. Those leaving the system at any low point 
would be prepared for the function which they had 
chosen to fulfill. Those reaching higher parts in the 
system would be drafted into them by a careful 
study and tabulation of the demands in the entire 
community. Furthering this correlation, we suggest 
in later chapters a delineation of courses and de- 
partmentalization . 



94 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Were a nation divided into university units, the 
government would early become a problem for con- 
sideration, for government as well as structure is a 
factor in correlation. Our national experiment in 
democracy has taught us the necessity for providing 
an impartial supreme judicial body forming a tri- 
bunal before which vexatious partisan difficulties 
may be tried and adjusted. And there is no reason 
to be skeptical concerning the beneficial influence 
which such a body might exert were one formed at 
the apex of our educational structure. In fact, we 
believe that the whole educational system for a 
given university unit should have above its admin- 
istrative machinery such a body, corresponding in 
many characteristics to the supreme bench of our 
judiciary, before which arguments concerning ques- 
tions arising between administrative pronouncement 
and individual community rights might be presented. 
Such a protective body has always been the safe- 
guard of democracy, and it is reasonable to suppose 
that such a protective body might equally safeguard 
the higher educational interests of communities. 

The function which such a body would perform 
has been filled at times in the past by trustees of 
universities, but, alas, more often than not boards of 
trustees have functioned not as courts of justice, but 
as committees of interference, upholding injustice 
and autocratic power. A supreme court such as is 



CORRELATION 95 

here proposed, it must be clearly understood, would 
have no administrative function whatever in con- 
nection with the university or with the university 
unit. It would merely be, to repeat, a supreme jury 
before which arguments for justice might be pre- 
sented and by which the evil of autocracy — per- 
haps the greatest in modern university life, forbid- 
ding as it does redress both for students and for 
faculty — might be prevented. 

The members of this body should be appointed for 
a definite period of time. A seven-year tenure of 
office with the impossibility of self-succession would 
more nearly approach the successful expression of 
man's judgment in this matter than either life ten- 
ure or a shorter period with the possibility of self- 
succession. The present traditional assumption by 
college and university presidents that their tenure of 
office extends for life, or until such a time as they 
may be able to retire as beneficiaries of the Car- 
negie Foundation, is an additional influence work- 
ing against satisfactory progress. One might be un- 
usually successful in the fulfillment of his office as a 
member of a supreme judicial body, but if this were 
the case, other opportunities would be open to pro- 
vide for the expression of such usefulness after the 
member's period of service had expired by periodical 
termination of tenure. Only by such methods could 
the judicial body be safeguarded against senility 



96 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

and that scarcely less degrading evil, degeneration, 
the natural and inevitable resultant of inbreeding. 

The .members of this supreme court of education 
might be appointed by the active administrative 
body of the university unit immediately below it in 
grade. This matter of appointment, however, will 
become clearer as the plan for the municipal founda- 
tion is unfolded. This additional fact is evident, that 
the judicial organization should be composed of not 
more than seven members, two retiring at the end 
of two years, two retiring at the end of four years, 
and three retiring at the end of six years, and so on 
thereafter. This method of retirement would pre- 
clude the possibility of packing the court and would 
retain it as a definite supreme body which would 
have, in common with all supreme judiciaries, justice 
as its stay. 

The determination of an administrative body for 
the university unit would be the next object for con- 
sideration. And this process would undeniably be 
fraught with extreme perils. Here, for guidance, let 
us recur again to our analysis and ask frankly. What 
groups have the right to representation in the gov- 
ernment of a university unit? Here again also we 
must recall that of all places for the exercise of 
democracy, since education is a prerequisite for suc- 
cessful democracy, a university unit of population 
must be the place most fitted for the experiment. 



CORRELATION 97 

Theoretically the laws of democracy ordain that 
all the population may participate in sovereignty; 
that all those affected by, living under, and sharing 
in the benefits of, this form of government shall be 
entitled, through representation, to participation in 
the councils of government. Clearly, then, democ- 
racy applied to the educational system would order 
that all those affected by the system are entitled to 
some representation in the democratic educational 
councils. And the bodies so affected are, of course, 
first of all the students under instruction in a given 
university unit, second, the faculty offering instruc- 
tion within the same division, and third, the parents 
of the children. 

We are at once faced with the truth that the stu- 
dent body of a university unit merits consideration. 
A student's right to representation is unquestion- 
ably based upon two facts : first, that he is the party 
most concerned, and second, that he is a member of 
the majority. The student body has a right to con- 
sideration, not alone because it constitutes the larg- 
est single group within the walls of the university, 
but because of the fact that the university unit itself 
was constructed for its instruction. It would be im- 
possible for any one to-day to say just what power 
of representation should be given to this mass. This 
fact, however, is evident, that student power, stim- 
ulated by experiences gained through lower insti- 



98 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

tutions through which the students have passed, 
has been growing apace and the right of students to 
representation is becoming more and more apparent. 
It may be even true that the day is near at hand 
when the admission to the councils or government 
in our educational system must be granted frankly 
and freely to chosen representatives of the student 
body. Nor is the admission of such representa- 
tives fraught with any particular danger. Maturity 
determines the right of franchise in other human 
affairs. Maturity may not be a just basis for division 
in educational affairs, but maturity has equal rights. 
Nor is it at all certain that rights of representation 
do not exist among those not yet arrived at matu- 
rity. At best this problem is a complicated one 
which only time and study can satisfactorily resolve. 

Evident as are the rights of the members of the 
student body to some representation in administra- 
tive educational circles, even more clear are the 
rights of the members of the faculty to representa- 
tion. 

President Schurman, of Cornell University, suc- 
cinctly indicated this right and advocated the idea 
of professional participation in government and con- 
trol of the universities when he said : — 

What is needed in American universities to-day is a 
new application of the principle of representative govern- 
ment. The faculty is essentially the university; yet in 



CORRELATION 99 

the governing boards of American universities the faculty 
is without representation. The only ultimately satis- 
factory solution of the problem of the government of 
American universities is the concession to the professori- 
ate of representation in the board of trustees or regents, 
and these representatives of the intellectual, which is the 
real life of the University, must not be mere ornamental 
figures; they should be granted an active share in the 
routine administration of the institution.^ 

As long ago as 1912 this recommendation was 
made that Cornell should lead the way in the 
further democratization of American universities. 
And last year witnessed the election of three mem- 
bers of the faculty of the Ithaca institution to the 
board of trustees. In fact so much progress has been 
made recently in the securing of faculty rights, and 
so much momentum has been given to the successful 
furthering of the campaign by this action of Cornell, 
that we need only mention the conflict in passing. 
Faculties have within their hands at the present 
time, in many of the better informed institutions, 
much that they have been struggling to secure, and 
the need for more adequate faculty representation 
on higher councils is increasingly gaining recogni- 
tion. 

The rights of the parents, who are also the tax- 
payers in the community, to representation in 

> The PresidenVs Report, 1915-1916. Cornell University Publications, 
vol. VII, no. 17, p. C. (Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.) 



100 A NEW BASTS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

higlior councils luivc not, np to tlic present time, been 
largely agitated. '^Flieir rights liave, to a cerlnin ex- 
tent, been neglecled because of tlieir own failure to 
insist upon any marked representation. In the mass 
iliey are naturally not conversant with eillier the de- 
tails of the system or the ])rol)lems which must be 
solved. Present tendencies, liowever, indicate that 
the day of the domination of the ])rofessional educa- 
tor over the practitioner in fields of education is pass- 
inj^. If the si^ns be read arif^ht, it is only a matter 
of time before there will come a recognition on a 
wide scale that the practitioners themselves are best 
fitted to say what should be served up as education. 
Not nnich longer may the theorists arbitrarily or- 
dain that the practitioner nuist take this or that 
or the olluM' dose. And as this conception of the 
vital ri^hls of the practilioner grows, there will 
come an increasing demand that the general public 
of taxpayers, composed as it is of practitioners, is 
entitled to important voice in the adnnnist ration of 
the educational system. While this is certain, it is 
also true in regard to the taxpaying ])ublic of prac- 
titioners that the larger that public the more unable 
it is as a body to administer, and it must trust for 
actual administrative guidance to elected repre- 
sentatives who are inlimalely associated with the 
control of problems. Probably in its actual adminis- 
tration the most just representation would be in the 



CORRETATION 101 

nature of a proportion of the administrative body 
which would return to tlie taxpayers tfiemselves the 
information lielpful in the formation of their better 
judgment. When the time arrives tfiat the voiee of 
the practitioner is heard and heedec] to the extent of 
sliapinf^ formal ecJucation to meet the demands, the 
shaping of the system in itself will afford ample 
justice to this long unrepresented body. 

In dealing with the university itself, which forms 
but a part of the proposed future ecJucational unit, 
another group, which, in the past, has been most in- 
fluential, must be reckoned with. We n^fer here to 
that group which has previously received its educa- 
tional training in the institutions of fiigher learning. 
This body, now known as the alumni, is scarcely en- 
titled to the un})ounded privileges which it now en- 
joys. Th(^se privileges were born of the necessity for 
saf(^guarding the interests of American colleges and 
universities against the uneducated mass at a time 
when education was not so widespread as it is at 
present. Privileges of sovereignty were also the re- 
wards for pecuniary assistance. So universally has 
this been the case that it is small wonder that 
alumni have come to look upon such sovereignty 
n^muneration for monetary aid as an almost inalien- 
able right. Nothing could be farthc^r from justice 
than this. To-day the individual who gives is alone 
favored by the privileges of giving. The recipient, 



102 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

by acceptance, honors rather than Is honored. Edu- 
cation also has become more diffused and the masses 
no longer constitute a menace to the welfare of edu- 
cational institutions. Alumni domination based 
upon protection afforded is no longer either neces- 
sary or equitable since the necessity for protection 
has been removed. In fact, it is even a moot ques- 
tion if universities have not lost more than they 
have gained by the security afforded. Certainly the 
benefits have been doubtful ones. Under our present 
system alumni control is a menace, and were the 
unit plan adopted, alumni would be entitled to no 
more representation in educational councils than 
would any other members of the community. They 
are, in reality, but a part of the greater public which 
a university must serve. 

The position of the university in the proposed 
system would raise still another question necessi- 
tating the further application of the principles of 
democracy. For a university under the unit plan 
would as now require a head, a president, or a chan- 
cellor, as the case might be. In the past the selection 
of this officer has been made by boards of trustees in 
consultation with the alumni representatives of the 
institution. It would seem, however, that the leader 
of a university might properly and safely be elected 
by heads of departments; not by heads of depart- 
ments as departments exist at the present time. 



CORRELATION 103 

but rather by heads of departments as departments 
would exist if the whole educational system were 
departmentalized in accordance with the highest 
ideals of community education. A proposed plan of 
departmentalization, which will be presented in a 
later chapter of this volume, will clarify this method 
of election by heads of departments. 



CILVrTER X 

THE IVrXTNiriPAL FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY 
AND ADVANCEMENT OF COMMUNITY EDUCATION 

TTNQUESTioNABiiY the proper agent to further the 
cause of education by systematic analysis and re- 
or»]janization of the edueaiional system wouUl be the 
Feth^al Government. History lias, however, taught 
that only as a project proves feasible is it accepted 
and made the recipient of Govermnent patronage. 
The Government, even if it would accept the task, 
has been, l)ecause of the rights of States, largely de- 
prived of its right of initiative in such matters. In- 
dividual States, existing l)efore the Uuion, have, in 
the matter of education, retained jurisdiction within 
their own borders. The inaugurations of projects, 
more or less experimental in nature, especially in the 
field of public education, have therefore not been a 
part of Government practice. In lieu, then, of the 
proper agent, in order to carry out such a plan as is 
suggested in this volume, it would become necessary 
to turn to other quarters and to depend upon volun- 
tary rather than upon governmental aid. 

Because of possibly justifiable conservatism on 
the part of the Government, the most feasible way 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 105 

of making a beginning at systematic reconstruction 
would be through a competent, voluntary group of 
men who would have, in addition to their apprecia- 
tion of the significance of the task undertaken, the 
funds with which to carry the project to fruition. 
Such a group assuming such a trusteeship we have 
chosen to name a Municipal Foundation for the 
Study and Advancement of Community Education. 

Thus far the suggestion is scarcely a novel one. 
Precedent is not lacking both for individuals and 
for groups. The Rockefeller Foundation, the Sage 
Foundation, and the Carnegie Foundation all stand 
as examples of monumental, individual, voluntary 
acceptance of composite social responsibilities, and 
the Cleveland Foundation for the Administration of 
Charity is an excellent example of group acceptance 
of the responsibility to further the interestsand 
welfare of community life. 

Meritorious as has been the work of these large 
foundations in the field of general education, a care- 
ful scrutiny of the publications describing their ac- 
tivities has led to the conclusion that in all of them 
vital weaknesses exist. They have endeavored and 
are still endeavoring to operate on a national scale, 
and although few years have passed since their in- 
ception, so varied are the peculiarities which have 
to be reckoned with, and the demands which have to 
be provided for, in the vast number of communities 



106 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

composing this Nation, that they have already 
become overburdened to such an extent that not 
even their enormous wealth of resources enables 
them more than to scratch the surface. However, 
this additional fact is, we believe, true, that the 
principle involved in the establishment of a foun- 
dation, were it applied in such a way as to make 
the task to be fulfilled bear a direct relation to the 
funds and equipment available for that task, would 
probably furnish the key to the secret of successful 
accomplishment in chosen fields of endeavor. 

Perhaps the vital contribution of foundations up 
to the present time has been the introduction into 
the educational field of the idea of experimentation 
and the suggestion that progress in this most im- 
portant realm of human endeavor is not impossible. 
The most recent of foundation experiments, the new 
model school founded by the Rockefeller Founda- 
tion in Teachers College, Columbia University, has 
already been mentioned in these pages. This experi- 
ment, in common with many others, however, if one 
may judge by the published material available at the 
present time, contains great elements of weakness. 
The two most significant of such would seem to be, 
first, the lack of a control experiment, and, second, 
the lack of carefully analyzed needs demanding ful- 
fillment. A prerequisite for all experimentation in 
laboratory work to-day is a control experiment. This 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 107 

is as essential as the experiment itself. This model 
school experiment in the midst of a large community 
such as New York, drafting its pupils from wide 
areas, assembling them from all members of all com- 
munities of widely varying bents, yet made without 
reference to community life, may be largely invali- 
dated by its susceptibility to criticisms which might 
have been avoided if the simple principle of unit 
autonomy, a unit of equipment for a unit of popu- 
lation, were applied in the beginning. 

The foundation which we would suggest, there- 
fore, would be not a national one, but a municipal 
one; that is, a group of men who would voluntarily 
undertake the task of analyzing the demands or the 
ultimates of a given community, gathering knowl- 
edge as a preliminary to the establishment of a firm 
foundation upon which to reconstruct the educa- 
tional system. That is, we believe that the applica- 
tion of the foundation idea to a community is in it- 
self a suggestion worthy of immediate consideration. 
In other words, we believe that the formation within 
a community of a voluntary group who would under- 
take the financing of the gross analysis of the ulti- 
mates of the community in which the foundation 
existed, and who would month after month and year 
after year furnish the community with knowledge 
upon which its educational system could be fittingly 
remodeled, and who would consider all existing in- 



108 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

stitutions and the functions which they could best 
perform for the community, and the final gross cor- 
relation of all offices which in the large exist only for 
the community which they serve and of which they 
are a part, would mark the beginning of a new and 
happier community existence. 

Inasmuch as the most difficult problems which 
would be presented to such an investigating body are 
those which involve the products of the higher edu- 
cational institutions in the community, the most 
fitting place for the municipal foundation to begin 
its work would be within a university. If the uni- 
versity in any community were not fitted to receive 
the foundation as an intramural correlating agency, 
the first task of the foundation would be to exert all 
its efforts to raise the university to a high plane. 
This, because it has been apparent throughout the 
progress made in education that a most impor- 
tant single factor has been the improvement and 
demands of higher instructional institutions operat- 
ing upon lower educational groups that have been 
forced by necessity to meet the requirements im- 
posed from above. Because of this it is safe to be- 
lieve that if the foundation could begin by enhanc- 
ing the post-graduate opportunities in a community, 
the whole educational system would rise to meet 
new and higher standards. And within the post- 
graduate school the foundation could fittingly find 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION lOD 

residence and there receive in its labors the aid of 
all students who had pushed on to this advanced 
part of the system. 

We believe that it may be said without question 
that, starting in those fields of higher learning that 
have been attained by individual endeavor, the in- 
vestigators would find the proper place by analysis 
to push aside obstacles which exist in the lower ed- 
ucational strata and tend there to produce that 
stagnation born of satisfaction so inherent in the 
mass of the human family. While we believe also 
that our analysis of conditions has led us to what is 
the rule, we do not believe that it is the invariable 
rule, for many instances of progressive organization 
and advancement have occurred in communities 
where men have become interested chiefly in pri- 
mary and secondary education. Investigation would 
tend to show, however, that these are largely excep- 
tions, and that as a more or less constant rule pri- 
mary and secondary schools rise to meet require- 
ments of higher educational institutions imposed 
from above rather than for the impetus of any force 
generated from within. 

Wherever the foundation found its home, its duty 
would be to bring the institution in which it has re- 
sided into such a position as would favor its render- 
ing trustworthy service to the community. And then 
day by day thereafter to seek, on the sure foundation 



110 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

of analysis of ultimates, to improve weak parts of 
the educational system and correlate groups having 
affinity for each other, to make elastic the whole 
educational system, and finally to evolve for the 
community served by the institution — which com- 
munity would in the long run be a national unit — 
a system of education elastic enough to keep pace 
with the progress of knowledge and sane enough to 
retract when the demands for any given ultimate 
disappeared. 

The performance of the task of the foundation 
would not be one in which any great rapidity could 
be gained. Patience and continual education of the 
community would be required. Moreover, progress 
toward success would require that the publica- 
tions of the foundation be so thorough as to in- 
spire trust in the undertaking by gaining immediate 
recognition of their meritoriousness and that those 
in charge ever keep before themselves the ideal 
of elasticity. Furthermore, a foundation would be 
required to remember that as it enlarged its field of 
endeavor, it would come in contact with, and im- 
pinge upon, its neighboring units, and that in addi- 
tion to its community service it had a function, con- 
jointly with all other foundations, existing for higher 
fields of achievement than those of local university 
interests, and that all would be busy with the one 
task of forming a nation which might in the future 



THE MUNICIPx^L FOUNDATION 111 

take a dominant part in a possible international 
society. 

Naturally, just as every aggregation of men pro- 
posing to supply a demand faces, as a primal neces- 
sity, the choice of a manager for the task which it has 
at hand, one of the first needs of a foundation having 
such an aim would be a leader. After the leader has 
been secured, however, if all were stimulated by the 
same vision and if sympathy furnished the impetus 
to every endeavor, all would work together to pro- 
vide the best for each community in which the opera- 
tion was to take place. Were this to happen, we be- 
lieve that, despite the tremendous difficulties which 
would of necessity be at first encountered, com- 
mon sympathy and able leadership would insure 
progress. 

In regard to progress it may be said that revolu- 
tion is probably not a requisite, although progress 
may at times have resulted from it. Always, how- 
ever, revolution has carried in its wake the sad 
results of the travail of many who have become in- 
volved in its toils. The eradication of certain false 
prophets, who have gained power because of the 
common ignorance of the demands of the commu- 
nity, could, we believe, be accomplished by other 
than revolutionary methods. The withdrawal of 
such agents from the field would be an early neces- 
sity, for all those working for selfish ends, and often- 



112 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

times for theoretical ends not based upon an analy- 
sis of demands, ever place experiments under a dis- 
advantage. 

In the case of this proposal, as in the case of all 
new plans, many may be skeptical and fearful be- 
cause the ramifications can be but vaguely outlined. 
Obscurities are ever deterrents. Yet in the present 
case, since the lines of progress are clearly and defi- 
nitely apparent to all who will take the time to start 
upon the journey and pursue it to the end, we be- 
lieve there is small cause for fearfulness. A daily 
disclosure of the details at present obscure, a daily 
reduction to order and system as they appear in 
increasingly stronger light, would soon clear away 
the clouds which, at first, seem impenetrable. Cer- 
tainly the end to be attained would make the strug- 
gle, no matter how difficult, increasingly of worth. 
No greater contribution could be given to human- 
ity than the exemplification of the truth that the 
greatness of a nation, the goodness and equitability 
of its government, and the provision for the people 
who form the building unit are wholly bound up 
with the educational system of the communities 
which form the nation. And the first step in this 
direction would be the acceptance of the task by 
such a small group as has been suggested; a body 
making their function and duty the gathering of 
knowledge of community ultimates, and by the in- 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 113 

sight thus gained, to point the way to future recon- 
struction. 

At its inception such a body as the proposed 
municipal foundation organization would need no 
administrative power. Later, however, the wisdom 
with which each foundation carried out its purpose 
would ultimately determine the amount of author- 
ity which could be safely granted to it. It is con- 
ceivable that in time a foundation might exercise 
the power at present vested in numerous boards of 
trustees. Unquestionably that body of men with 
whom resided the most careful analysis of demands 
and facilities for any given unit of population would 
form the safest repository for the entrusting of ap- 
pointments to all institutions operating within the 
district. To this board, if authority were in the 
future granted it, there would be elected represen- 
tatives of all the interests resulting from the de- 
partmentalization of the system of education of the 
whole university unit. Service rather than power, 
however, should be the ideal for the group. The 
immediate necessity would be the gathering of 
knowledge for the given unit by analysis and tabu- 
lation of results obtained, and the doing well of the 
work which to-day is attempted in a small and per- 
functory way by many scattered governmental and 
voluntary agents, of making intensive studies of 
units of population which are to be directly served. 



114 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

The history of the past is indicative of the fact 
that the careful study of the small group is often 
accepted and made a powerful influence in determin- 
ing the policy for a larger aggregation of which the 
group under study was but a part. A survey of the 
attempts of the Federal Bureau of Education and of 
the endeavors of the various large foundations re- 
veals the fact that in each instance each of these 
organizations is striving to determine definitely 
general principles on the basis of small studies. 
The report of the Commissioner of Education is in 
essence an analysis of local studies. The reports of 
the special foundations likewise exhibit a similar 
attempt to project principles on similar bases. It 
may be that the hour has not yet arrived for the 
acceptance and acknowledgment that intensive 
study of units of population, carefully analyzed and 
tabulated, must be at the foundation of any future 
proposal of universal education. However this may 
be, we believe that that time will sooner or later 
arrive. And when the hour is ripe, we believe that 
the feasible method to employ would be to select 
university units scattered over the United States 
which could, in the first rough partitionment and 
until a sulficient amount of knowledge were forth- 
coming to guide in the application of the principle, 
rest upon the basis of State lines as they at present 
exist. We have already intimated that it is^quite 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 115 

within reason to suppose that Government patron- 
age would ultimately follow the successful operation 
by municipal agents of the unit plan. It is unlikely, 
however, that Government acceptance of the opera- 
tion in those communities where education has pro- 
ceeded farthest would be immediately forthcoming. 
Yet the probability of tardiness on the part of the 
Government need not be a bar. The mere accept- 
ance of the task would furnish an opportunity for 
investment of wealth in securities bringing returns 
more rapidly and in larger percentage than any 
others at present in the world-markets. And with 
the increasing success of the undertaking, assuredly 
governmental recognition would come. 

As has been suggested, existing institutions might 
fittingly be left until a sufficient amount of knowl- 
edge could be gathered. Existing boards of trustees, 
faculty organizations, and subordinate institutions 
might all carry on their work as at present until such 
a time as the findings of the foundation should dis- 
close a sufficient knowledge of the changes to be 
made. Having allowed existing institutions tem- 
porarily to continue in their way, it would be the 
function for the foundation of the university unit to 
keep the knowledge which it was accumulating con- 
stantly before the inhabitants of the unit. If this 
were carefully and wisely done, the future of the 
given unit would be assured and the foundation 



116 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

might ultimately be entrusted with the final selec- 
tion for the given period of years of all administra- 
tive heads in the various educational organizations 
which in any way furnished a supply for any of the 
demands of the given area. 

The charter under which such a foundation would 
operate would prescribe the future composition of 
this body. In the inception, it would only be neces- 
sary for a group to accept voluntarily the responsi- 
bility and seek incorporation for the purposes sug- 
gested, outlining those in its charter. In no other way 
could the act be accomplished, and the fulfillment 
of its mission would be the assurance of the founda- 
tion's perpetuity. And again, if its trust were care- 
fully carried out, its power would be commensurate 
with its wisdom. For as the populace of any given 
university unit became more and more educated, 
the members would scrutinize with increasing care 
the endeavors of the foundation to fulfill its func- 
tion and, with confidence in its wisdom, would add 
to its authority. 

The most feasible way to an immediate beginning 
of such a project would be for one individual to ex- 
hibit an ultimate of leadership sufficient to call about 
him such a group, and to propose to them that they 
accept temporarily as their duty the gathering of the 
knowledge for the community in which they reside, 
and that furthermore they accept the responsibility 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 117 

for the expense incurred by such a venture, and next 
that they proceed to appoint a man and instruct him 
to begin the analysis and tabulation. If the original 
voluntary group were of authority and standing in 
the community all existing data possessed by various 
municipal organizations would be open to the agent 
of the foundation at once. This group, as we have 
said, might either become incorporated immediately 
or exist for a time simply as a voluntary organiza- 
tion requiring frequent reports of the progress of the 
work, and as soon as these reports assured the success 
of the endeavor, incorporation for a specific purpose 
could be accomplished. A weekly and monthly evo- 
lution of the duties and functions of such an organi- 
zation would soon establish the wisest course along 
which to proceed. 

It would not be necessary in the beginning to in- 
clude among the members of such a body any of the 
existing administrative oflScers in the various insti- 
tutions feeding the community. In fact, it would 
seem inadvisable to make such an inclusion, for it 
has often been demonstrated that actual admin- 
istrators are incapable, as a rule, of seeing beyond 
the influence which any given movement might 
have upon the institution of which they are a part, 
and few, indeed, are those who rise to the height of 
considering the population as a whole, confined as 
they are by the necessity of earning a livelihood, by 



118 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

existing entanglements and promises, and by the in- 
vasion of authority even in the actual promulgation 
of their own thoughts. All these factors and many 
more prevent administrators from encompassing 
generally any vision for the group. Too often great 
projects are brought to an untimely end because of 
the narrow and restricted personal views of members 
who form the individual board. Too often also the 
active agents of projects hold within themselves the 
fatality of the proposal which they are asked to 
accept. 

Furthermore, if the death of an institution is to 
be prevented, definite provision also must be made 
in the beginning concerning tenure of office. Meri- 
torious ends are often defeated by a long contract 
and this should be guarded against. 

As an additional safeguard, also, the members 
of the foundation should insist that frequent state- 
ments be furnished them by their agent; statements 
similar to the tonnage sheets in our large businesses 
illustrating the progress of the work. By this means 
the foundation could not only gauge the growth of 
the project which it was furthering, but also would 
evaluate the fitness of their chosen agent to perform 
his task. 

An early duty of the foundation would be to estab- 
lish a bureau for the analysis of the demands of the 
university unit. Then as the work progressed there 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 119 

would evolve, associated with this bureau of analy- 
sis, a bureau of statistics in which the results of the 
analysis would be tabulated and kept up to date. 
And this would be followed ultimately by a bureau 
of supply which would undertake the distribution of 
equipment throughout the university unit. Through 
these three bureaus the municipal foundation for 
the study and advancement of community educa- 
tion might attempt without dominance to under- 
take modifications in the existing educational sys- 
tem, to provide equipment in some institutions, to 
further reconstruction and stop waste in others, and 
to propose from time to time new ways of supply- 
ing demands existing in the community. The foun- 
dation might ultimately have as one of its most 
powerful influences the business of subsidizing such 
institutions as required assistance in the demands 
which the community placed upon them and of fur- 
nishing the equipment requisite for supplying the 
students with the proper education for any vocation 
crying for supply at a given time. Within the space 
of a few years, perhaps within less than two, such 
a foundation should be able to provide sound and 
adequate knowledge upon which radical changes 
and amicable rearrangements might be based. It 
should be furnished means to secure full publicity, 
so that those to be served and taxed might have a 
knowledge of what was being accomplished, and in 



120 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

the end, slowly, it is true, in some localities, more 
rapidly in others, provision could be made for a de- 
lineation of courses running throughout the entire 
system. The function of such a foundation would be 
solely an educational function for the community, 
fitting supply to demand, an analysis of demands 
being a prerequisite for the equipment for supply 
and a delineation of courses being a prerequisite for 
utilization of equipment. 

It is perhaps unwise to attempt to enter into the 
details of the progress of such a foundation beyond 
this primary course, because its future would be de- 
termined largely by the character of the men form- 
ing the group and would perforce differ for differing 
communities even as the communities differ in their 
bents. But this much can be safely said, that the 
goal is clear — the furthering to the utmost of the 
happiness of the populace under study. And it is 
conceivable that in time, by a tactful presentation 
of its own educational function in the community, 
the foundation might exercise the most beneficial 
influence upon the progress of organization of the 
whole educational system of the unit from the low- 
est common school through to the highest post- 
graduate division. By keeping all informed continu- 
ously of its analysis of demands and by publishing 
its suggestions for supply, it should know just as 
perfectly those fitted for office in training the youth 



THE MUNICIPAL FOUNDATION 121 

for the demands as it should know the actual de- 
mands in every occupation to be filled within the 
limits of the unit. It would stand as an intermediary 
between the supreme court of education and the act- 
ual administrative body of the educational system. 
It would in time, in its future life, have among its 
members those who reached it by election, and the 
tenure of office of those members would, of course, 
be determined by its articles of incorporation. 

The question of maintenance, ever an important 
one, must of necessity be dealt with in advancing 
such a proposition as that of the municipal foun- 
dation. There would, of course, be many sources of 
income open to such an organization. Probably, 
owing to the disorganized condition existing at the 
present time, the first requisite would be a gift. 
However, as a foundation proved its serviceabil- 
ity and value, allowance might be made from the 
funds collected by general taxation in the given unit. 
The foundation itself might even in time be fittingly 
the arbiter in the expenditure of funds in any given 
area. In fact, it is scarcely possible to conceive of 
any limitation that might be placed upon a wisely 
and judiciously administered foundation. Another 
specific source of income might be furnished by the 
evolution of such a vision as that held by the late 
Dr. Robert Kennedy Duncan, which resulted in the 
founding of the Mellon Institute for Industrial 



122 A NEW BASIS FOB SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Research in the city of Pittsburgh. Under proper 
organization the income which might honestly and 
fittingly be derived from the contributions of this 
type of institution to the industrial welfare of the 
community having a peculiar industrial bent, would 
be enormous. Yearly, by royalties from the indus- 
tries, the foundation could have returned to it funds 
which would enable it to augment weak elements 
in the educational system necessary in order to re- 
turn to the community those best fitted for service 
within its territory. In this way not only would the 
foundation feed the industries, but also the indus- 
tries would, in turn, through royalties paid, feed the 
foundation, and in this way would be established a 
benign circle for the welfare of the entire univer- 
sity unit. 



CHAPTER XI 

- DELINEATION OF COURSES 

One result necessarily following an analysis of ul- 
timates, and perhaps a result of equal importance in 
the promulgation of the system of education herein 
proposed, since it would be a most powerful force 
working for correlation, would be a division, as has 
already been hinted, of the fields of knowledge into 
departments extending throughout the whole plan, 
and a delineation of courses which might properly be 
grouped in such departments. Essential to a com- 
prehension of the subject-matter presented in the 
following chapter dealing with departments and 
departmentalization, is a grasp of the process sug- 
gested as feasible to employ in securing the knowl- 
edge requisite for a general and thorough delinea- 
tion. 

It will be readily seen that in order to lead the 
pupil out of the educational system at any one of the 
chosen vocations, a careful delineation of studies to 
be pursued by him, from the time of his entrance 
to the primary school to the time of his leaving the 
educational system to undertake his work in the 
world, would be required. 

One important function of the municipal foun- 



124 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

dation for the study and advancement of community 
education would be to ascertain by a canvass of the 
various vocations, which we have termed ultimates, 
what subjects furnish the necessary foundation for 
any given occupation and what subjects relate them- 
selves so closely to these necessities as to consti- 
tute beneficial electives. Such a classification, based 
upon information furnished by those practitioners 
actually engaged in the occupations themselves, 
would furnish the only groundwork for the educa- 
tional system which would loose, at any given point, 
human products adequately equipped successfully 
to enter upon the work of the vocation which they 
had chosen to elect. 

That we may better understand what is meant, let 
us choose an express example. Let us take a spe- 
cific ultimate, surgery. At once, owing to the inad- 
equacy of our present system of education, we en- 
counter difiiculties. The question to be answered in 
reference to this particular ultimate is. How is it pos- 
sible to arrive at a delineation of courses that shall 
fit a surgeon to perform his vocational function? 
Yet, at the outset, we are plunged into the midst 
of confusion because the term "surgery" encom- 
passes within itself a number of ultimates, each more 
or less definite, each requiring a marked specializa- 
tion. We find that as time has gone on, this particu- 
lar late vocation has split into parts, and that at the 



DELINEATION OF COURSES 125 

present proficiency is gained only by concentrating 
upon some special portion of the field. Furthermore, 
present tendencies would seem to indicate that it is 
not unreasonable to suppose that ultimately there 
will be a demand for special surgeons for almost 
every region of the human body. 

Everywhere we find evidences of the passing of 
the general surgeon and the coming of the special- 
ized surgeon. An examination of the departments 
of surgery in our more advanced medical schools re- 
veals that there have been created sub-departments 
governing each of these special fields. This develop- 
ment has probably not been so much an outgrowth 
of the wide variation required in the technic of sur- 
gery itself, as an outgrowth of advancement made in 
anatomy, physiology, and chemistry. The increased 
medical knowledge born of progress in these fields 
is making it increasingly difficult for any generalized 
type of vocationalist to operate successfully on all 
parts of the human body. We have, therefore, been 
forced to recognize in the abdominal region, for in- 
stance, four or five special operators, all of whom 
have the right before their fellow practitioners to 
enter the peritoneal cavity. In the pelvis, we must 
concede the rights of as many more, and in that vital 
part of the human body crowned by the calvarium, 
we bow to special surgeons for every organ. And 
at the moment we are seeing the beginnings of the 



12G A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL rROCUlKSS 

development of special operators dealing with the 
lun<j[s and the mediastinnni. 

Such develoi)nieuls in tiie general field indicate 
the trend toward si)ecialization. And yet, des]>ite 
the number of specialized surgeons which we find 
actively practicing at the present day, we are quite 
safe in saying that no school of higher education has 
yet taken cognizance of the demands in this field. 
This fact is imj)ortant to us for the reason that any 
attempts now made to delineate courses leading to 
s])eciahzed surgical functions must suffer, because 
of the inertia of our medical schools to ])rogress in 
the process of demarkjition, and because of the 
sovereignty of the l)clief that a certain period of 
years must dominate the prospective surgeon's 
higher vocational education as similar arl)itrary 
time divisions have dominated his lower years of 
education. Little provision has been made in our 
medical schools to shape the course so that it shall 
lead to a dclhiite ultinuite. 

Already, so complicated has the situation become 
that the reader might even now fittingly question 
the adequacy of our chosen ultimate to exemplify 
the process. But, as a matter of fact, the conditions 
would have been the same had we taken as an ex- 
ample engineering, or chemistry, or any one of the 
late vocations. We have chosen surgery to exemplify 
the i)roposal, not because the lines of demarkatiou 



DELINEATION OF COURSES 127 

arc more vaguely defined in tin's field than in any 
other, hut het.-ause the vagueness here is typieal of 
the vagueness found in all fi(ilds and hcicause pr(\sent 
conditions have indicated the tendency toward the 
recognition of the necessity for demarkation to an 
extreme degree in this particular branch. Vital 
impetus has also been given to this movement, in 
surgery, by the developments forced by the present 
world war. Efficiency in handling the increased 
numbers of those requiring surgical attention on the 
European battle fronts has demanded the creation 
of such a situation as is exemplified to-day in many 
of the hospitals in France. Here surgeons operate 
upon the same organ of the human body from morn- 
ing until night on all cases referred to them from 
the central distributing office, and this means, of 
course, departmental organization on the basis of 
regional surgery. Quite aside from this development 
caused by the exigc^ncies of unnatural conditions, 
there has been growing another department in more 
highly developed educational institutions in this 
country where a man becomes not primarily a re- 
gional surgeon, but rather a functional surgeon. 
Here again, the increase in knowh^lge in anatomy, 
physiology, and chemistry and other vital, related 
sciences, in regard to given groups of organs is re- 
sponsible for this development. 

While there is unquestionably truth in the state- 



128 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

merit that specialization precedes the degeneration 
of the race, specialization must nevertheless be 
looked upon as a principle requisite to individual 
advancement in vocations. This, however, is but 
a part of the truth. Specialization, by promoting 
the individual's opportunities for accomplishment, 
is unquestionably a great single factor in promot- 
ing happiness. Nor does this fact invalidate the 
counter-truth that the broader the education the 
more likely the possibility of fulfillment of com- 
munal requirements and the attainment of happi- 
ness born of such fulfillment. 

The educational system must ultimately recog- 
nize both of these operating principles. There must 
come a realization that in addition to providing a 
man with the necessaries of life, probably with a 
specialized vocation and instruction which fill the 
demands of such functions, there must also be a 
provision for the study of those contributory but not 
necessary subjects which will enable the individual 
to fulfill those demands of his communal existence 
which are not primarily conjoined with the demands 
of his specialized vocation. 

Also another fact must gain recognition. Individ- 
uals vary. Vocationalists and culturists and all in 
the educational groups must acknowledge that it is 
quite possible that there are in existence certain in- 
dividuals without receptors for types of education 



DELINEATION OF COURSES 129 

which all groups attempt to force upon them. A 
general recognition of this one fact would eliminate, 
as our suggestions for departmentalization if put in 
practice would probably eliminate, a great stum- 
bling-block in the progress of education generally. 
It is conceivable further that the recognition of the 
fact that as individuals differ in groups, they vary 
not only in the kind and number of receptors for 
various kinds of knowledge, but they widely differ 
also in their ability to digest or assimilate or corre- 
late within their own physical structures impres- 
sions which come to them from the various outside 
sources. 

But let us return again to our question. How shall 
we arrive at a delineation of courses for our special- 
ized surgeon of the future? Our methods of analysis 
in this field it is quite conceivable might in the be- 
ginning be crude because we have not yet had suffi- 
cient practice in such a procedure. We have sug- 
gested that the one way out of the difficulty would 
be to establish a municipal foundation having for 
one of its functions the making of analyses. With 
the establishment of a foundation it would become 
possible to ask any given five hundred surgeons to 
make a survey of the course of their education from 
earliest childhood and to give to the foundation a 
delineation of what they conceive would constitute 
the proper course leading to such an ultimate. This 



130 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

would mean, let us suppose, that the foundation 
would be presented with personal analyses from five 
hundred sources. Out of this mass might come, let 
us suppose, fifty per cent of courses upon which all 
would agree as necessary. This information then 
might form the foundation for the beginnings of a de- 
lineation of the proper course for surgeons of special- 
ized type. Upon twenty per cent of the balance of 
courses perhaps ninety or eighty or seventy per cent 
would be in agreement. These courses thus agreed 
upon might be drafted in the delineation of courses 
for specialized surgeons, either into the compulsory 
field or into the elective field, and so on. The ques- 
tionnaire would have to incorporate an indication 
that the answer should encompass not only the 
most specific functions in life, but also the com- 
munal, national, and international function of the 
surgeon. In this way a beginning might be made. 

Changes most certainly would come in the course 
of time. These changes, however, would be based, 
always, upon the evolution of knowledge. Each 
community would begin to work out for itself the 
delineation of courses extending back to the earliest 
primary departments. Gross mistakes would be 
inevitable, if we attempted, now, without knowl- 
edge, to prescribe any form of delineation. We are 
quite sure, however, that the prescription of deline- 
ation, which is based upon a theoretical foundation 



DELINEATION OF COURSES -131 

such as is made to-day by theoretical teachers who 
have never been practitioners of many of the func- 
tions for which they attempt to delineate, is un- 
sound. On the other hand, it is not to be denied 
that among many of the vocations the practitioners 
themselves are not fitted to assist very materially in 
this delineation because they have been deprived of 
education in the habits of thought which would en- 
able them to utilize an influence which would be of 
the utmost value in preparing them for their given 
vocation. Nevertheless, it would not be long, if this 
demand were created in the habit of thought, before 
all practitioners in every field of endeavor would be 
able to assist in making the necessary corrections in 
the first delineation. 

In the first delineation a certain amount of arbi- 
trary determination would be necessary, especially 
in the lower fields of education, because it might be 
unsafe to take the advice of the more unintelli- 
gent members of the human family in the matter of 
what would be wisest to elect in making one's self 
useful in any given community. At the top of the 
human family, our analysis by individuals might be 
a sound basis, but we should descend with less assur- 
ance to the middle group. Below this group surety 
of determination of advisable courses would grow 
less and less until an unsafe area would undoubtedly 
be reached in which it would be necessary to admit 



132 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

more and more paternalism, and possibly we should 
arrive finally at a group where complete paternalism 
over prescribed courses would, in the beginning, be 
necessary. Probably, at the lower level the primary 
desire might be for an education that would dispense 
with work and allow only for pleasure. Here a 
paternal authority would certainly be necessary to 
demand that pleasure should only be a correlative 
of labor. An analysis of the most highly developed 
members would be a sound basis for a delineation 
of courses throughout the system for a given group, 
whereas an analysis of the lower grades of intelli- 
gence would form a very uncertain foundation for a 
delineation of courses for them. Therefore a deline- 
ation would vary from the point where no paternal- 
ism was necessary to the point where almost com- 
plete paternalism would be necessary to draft, for 
each member of the entering group, the compulsory 
and the elective studies. This paternalism, exercised 
upon those whose ultimates exist in the humbler 
vocations, would insist that those who are sent out 
for the more lowly tasks be taught the highest ulti- 
mates of citizenship and saving and, in addition, 
whatever beneficial and cultural subjects the limited 
time allowed them would permit, to lead them to the 
best conduction of themselves and their affairs while 
doing even the smallest tasks required by the most 
meager mental equipment. 



DELINEATION OF COURSES 133 

It is easy to foresee a number of obstacles in the 
way of such a delineation. Among those to be 
reckoned with would be, of course, union domina- 
tion of trade, the necessity for providing additions 
to the family budget, the multitudinous institutions 
providing similar equipment, the lack of a definite 
policy for any unit of population, the dearth of 
knowledge in regard to the relation of supply to 
demand, and the want of properly trained student 
guides. 

With such obstacles hindering the progress of a 
sound educational system, the question immediately 
presents itself. What can be done to reduce the op- 
position? The incontrovertible answer is that edu- 
cation itself must be the agent in removing opposi- 
tion. Each year, as a municipal foundation could, as 
a result of its analyses, furnish the populace of the 
given community with a sound equipment of knowl- 
edge, each year, as a result of more careful guidance 
of students, the families would be raised to higher 
points of eflSciency, obstacles to the progress of 
the system would disappear. And since the system 
would in the long run, by fitting its products imme- 
diately to assume their given vocations at the time 
of their departure, increase the family budget, it 
would in like measure raise the standard of living 
and the consequent happiness of the householders 
forming the community. Were this the case it is 



134 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

certainly within reason to suppose that the popu- 
lation, as a whole, would come to see clearly the 
value of such a system. The burden of the solu- 
tion of the problem would rest in the hands of the 
foundation itself. 

A pursuance of this thought for no matter how 
short a time will, we believe, be suflScient to indi- 
cate how tremendous would be the saving to all 
were a delineation of courses throughout the ed- 
ucational system accomplished. We believe that 
not only would a better practitioner be produced by 
complete course delineation, but also that if, with 
such complete delineation, there were, in addition, 
put into operation a plan for departmentalization, 
similar probably to that suggested in the following 
chapter, to facilitate the emergence of all individu- 
als entering the educational system, the best prac- 
titioner might be produced in the shortest period 
of time. If those results were to follow course 
delineation and departmentalization, certainly no 
small contribution to the sum total of human hap- 
piness would be made. 



CHAPTER XH 

DEPARTMENTALIZATION 

There is no good and justifiable reason for the exist- 
ence of such arbitrary time boundaries as at present 
limit the activity and progress of individual mem- 
bers of our groups who present themselves to the 
educational system for training. We have long been 
dominated by the apparent necessity of moving 
groups of children over a given distance in a given 
period of time. Our modern educational system is 
built upon this idea, that such a group can only be 
moved over such a given distance in such a given 
time, regardless of the different ultimates of the 
group and equally regardless of the varying mental 
capacities of the individuals who compose it. Not 
only do the restrictions of the present arbitrary time 
boundaries wholly militate against the brighter ele- 
ments of the entire group, but they reduce whole 
classes to the level of the average student and by so 
doing deprive the Nation of the increment which 
its system of education should bring to it by facil- 
itating the emergence of the brighter students. 

As we are to-day organized, our common-school 
equipment has apparently little or no elasticity 
because subjects are grouped under individuals. 



136 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Oftentimes these subjects are wholly unrelated and 
our primary teachers are commonly supposed to 
be equipped to handle any subject in the primary 
schools. In fact, many teachers handle all subjects 
that are presented to a group of children during a 
given year. Nor docs this condition exist in rural 
schools alone. Perhaps the simplest method of get- 
ting away from this restricted form of organization 
is immediately to understand the other factor which 
would work for correlation in such a system as we 
have proposed, i.e., the principle of departmen- 
talization which has been so great an influence in 
business life. 

We have already intimated in a brief way what is 
herein meant by departmentalization. Defined in 
broadest terms, it is but the correlation of the whole 
system within a given university unit. Inasmuch 
as this proposal suggests changes which are radical 
departures from the conditions at present obtaining, 
it is necessary, for the time being, to put present 
conditions out of mind and to allow our thoughts to 
travel solely to the principles which have been oper- 
ating in the most successful organization. The effect 
of the application of these principles here convinces 
us that they are the soundest to apply in the educa- 
tional system in the gross university units. 

The diagram which follows is an attempt to pre- 
sent, in a form more graphic than words, what is 



n 







.^ 




TRiMAf^Y IBeOINNINQ 



Secondary Continuation undergraduate Continuat* 








CP 






c 






Tt 




O 


a 




o 


tn 


m 


c 


3 


d 


<«J 


r- 


^ 


-H 




> 






H 


O 










O 






a 







QR.ADOATE AND LAT£ VOCATIONAL 



DEPARTMENTALIZATION 137 

meant by departmentalization. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that this chart does not claim for 
itself completeness. Only a municipal foundation, 
the duties of which have been broadly sketched in 
preceding chapters, could fill in, with the necessary 
degree of accuracy, the details lacking in the present 
chart. But, after all, it is not the details that are of 
primary importance. The general plan of depart- 
mentalization will be, we believe, adequate to pre- 
sent the principles despite the dearth of details. 

From this chart it will be seen that, under our pro- 
posed plan of departmentalization, certain depart- 
ments would extend continuously from the lowest 
point of the system to the highest, from the begin- 
ning of education through to any point of emergence 
into any given vocation. While, as we have said, no 
attempt has been made to include all departments 
which might ultimately be necessary, it is suffi- 
ciently clear that the fundamental departments, 
since we are dealing primarily with America, would 
be English and citizenship. 

What might be included under the general caption 
of English is fairly well defined. Citizenship, how- 
ever, is a more elastic term and would encompass 
several departments, such as history, government, 
geography, physiology, hygiene, and mathematics. 
These departments would run throughout from the 
primary division through the post-graduate school. 



138 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Other departments would begin only in the second- 
ary division — chemistry, physics, Romance lan- 
guages, German, and biology, for example. Others 
would begin in the undergraduate school and still 
others in the graduate school. In the graduate 
school would begin the study of various fields of 
work which meet special late vocational demands 
requiring both intensive and extensive preparation, 
such specialization as is required for our late voca- 
tions or present-day professions. The delineation 
of these courses could be outlined again only after 
the fundamental analysis of the demands of a com- 
munity had been made. 

The most immediate results of such departmen- 
talization would, of course, manifest themselves as 
effects upon students entering the system. Let us 
now enter a group of children into an educational 
system which has been departmentalized. In such 
a group would be children of all mental equipment, 
home influences, and variation of ultimates. The 
first essential for the mass would be the provision of 
an education for them in the irreducible minimum 
which must form a foundation for all their future 
education, i.e., there must be for all, regardless of 
vocation, regardless of ultimates, an irreducible 
minimum, in certain fields, which must be taken the 
same for all. In this irreducible minimum the study 
of the language which the individual must use, — 



DEPARTMENTALIZATION 139 

that is, in America, English, — and such other sub- 
jects as will train him to perform his duties as a citi- 
zen, must find a place. The irreducible minimum 
would be represented in our departmentalized sys- 
tem by those departments which extend from the 
lowest point to the highest. 

The next necessity would be to allow children to 
travel as rapidly through the system as their recep- 
tivity would permit. Emphasis would be placed 
solely upon the probable force that would drive any 
individual in a given group any distance in any time, 
and the rapidity of the progress and the distance 
traveled would be dependent solely upon the ability 
and the capacity of the traveler. Arbitrary time 
divisions would be entirely eradicated and progres- 
sion would of necessity be closely related to the 
study of the individual children, through a depart- 
ment established for that purpose, in order that 
the capacity of students might be gauged and not 
flooded to the point of injury. 

The school physicians, the visiting nurses of the 
school, who ascertain home conditions and the at- 
titude of parents toward education in general, the 
teacher who has charge of a given part of a depart- 
ment, would all furnish information important to 
the welfare of the student. The statistics gathered 
by these agents would be carefully tabulated in one 
department and the child advised and guided in 



140 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

the light of the knowledge thus gained. The progres- 
sion of the student might be easily accomplished 
when left in the hands of the department whose 
sole duty it was to undertake student guidance and 
arrange classes for students on the basis of the 
knowledge it possessed. 

It is conceivable that a percentage of our entering 
group under adequate guidance would complete the 
work of the primary grades in much less time than it 
would take a similar group at present. On the other 
hand, a small percentage might require a longer 
period of time than is required at present. The 
advantage, however, would be that the drones and 
the backward students would not reduce whole 
classes of varying capacity to the dead level of the 
average. Another percentage would, of course, early 
exhibit the fact that they were in no way fitted for 
the educational system provided to take care of 
normal children and they, perforce, would be ex- 
creted at the earliest moment in order that other 
methods applicable in the training of subnormal 
children might be employed. Thus, even in the 
primary school, a process of excretion would go on 
through the department of student guidance. 

As the first members of our group reached the 
end of the provision made in the primary division of 
any given subject, the necessity for continuing into 
the secondary school special studies in which profi- 



DEPARTMENTALIZATION 141 

ciency had been shown would present the first serious 
difficulty. Under our present system the student 
must have compassed the work of all departments in 
which he has entered in the primary school before 
passing on across the first arbitrary time division 
into a secondary school. This, of course, is one of 
the most serious obstacles in the way of the applica- 
tion of the principles which we have attempted to 
outline, existent in the present form of organiza- 
tion. 

It will readily be perceived that unless the deline- 
ation of courses arrived at by the analysis of ulti- 
mates be continued by departmentalization from the 
lowest to the highest point in the system, the prin- 
ciple itself could not be successfully put in operation. 
All efforts at the present time are being expended to 
discover the expedient which will obviate the ne- 
cessity for accepting the fullest application of this 
principle. Perhaps it is the practice of wisdom to 
face directly the question and ask why the principle 
of delineation of courses and departments should 
not extend throughout the whole system and why 
the very elastic principle of departmentalization 
should not be extended through to the smallest 
primary units. 

What is proposed here is, that a student be al- 
lowed to push forward as rapidly as possible in those 
departments in which he has shown peculiar capa- 



142 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

bility . Those who first reached the end of the course, 
in any department which the primary educational 
equipment could give, would travel from those 
classes in which they had finished to the second- 
ary equipment for that unit. It might conceivably 
happen, without any difficulty, that for certain 
classes some members of our given group might be 
carrying on work in the primary school simultane- 
ously with advanced work in other classes in the 
secondary school, always, of course, under proper 
guidance. And so on the principle would operate 
throughout the system. Furthermore, it is conceiv- 
able that our group which was entered might be at 
the end of ten years disseminated throughout the 
whole educational system to different points of 
departure, varying always with the capacity of the 
student and the requirements of the ultimates which 
the individual had elected to reach. The result of 
this would be that a constant supply of individuals 
properly equipped would be furnished, to take care 
of the different demands existing in the community. 
The only period at which group assembling would 
occur then would be at the period of entrance and 
until one student showed an accumulation of knowl- 
edge sufficient to take the first step in progress. It is 
also conceivable that a department of student guid- 
ance would, through its agents, sit in class after class 
and determine, by a survey, the bents of the individ- 



DEPARTMENTALIZATION 143 

ual students in the room. This provision for the 
super-normal would seem, to us, far more important 
than provision for the average student and the 
infra-normal. 

It would be possible under such a system for any 
group which presented itself for treatment to be 
handled individually. Each member would be pre- 
sented with opportunities for assimilation and 
growth. A thorough grounding in the fundamentals 
required by his particular department ultimate 
would be furnished as rapidly as his capacity for 
observation would admit, and in addition he would 
be allowed to select with almost unrestricted free- 
dom from any of the contributory fields of learning 
which his natural capacities sought. He would fur- 
thermore be allowed the privilege, which is after all 
his right, of setting with his own brain the pace 
which he was fitted to hold in the race. The domi- 
nation of the mediocre and the average over the 
able and the eager would be forever at an end. And 
equally important, the individual, produced from a 
system such as this, would present, at the time of his 
departure, those individual characteristics which 
nature has ordained shall be the most valuable pos- 
session of man, our present educational system to 
the contrary notwithstanding. 

It will be seen from this that we believe that the 
proposed solution of present educational entangle- 



144 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PHOGRESS 

merits can be summed up in the one word "depart- 
mentalization." But the end is not here. 

The idea carries with it the application of election 
in government to the whole system. The present 
quarrels existing in the educational world between 
colleges and secondary schools, between secondary 
schools and primary schools, have their origin in the 
same condition. Complaints of the domination of 
upper groups are met by complaints of a lack of 
sympathy on the part of lower groups, and so on it 
goes throughout the entire organization. This would 
be completely wiped away if the plan suggested were 
put in operation. We should no longer be distressed 
with the problem of conciliating those in authority 
in the primary schools who object to the domination 
of standards set by those in the secondary schools, 
and in like manner, those in the secondary schools 
who complain of the domination of standards set 
by universities, colleges, and institutions of higher 
learning. If this one result were secured, much 
available energy which at the present time is being 
wasted in useless controversy might be turned into 
channels where it could be expended for the produc- 
tion of good. This would be but the recognition of 
the principle — a recognition which must, in the 
course of time, become inevitable — that the educa- 
tional system should be shaped not by the demands 
of any one institution based upon its equipment, 



DEPARTMENTALIZATION 145 

but rather by the demands of the population which 
the various institutions are to serve. Here, once 
again, it is apparent that demands can only be as- 
certained by an analysis of the ultimates. 

Here again also we must face the fact that if 
democracy is sound, its principles should be applied 
tooureducational system, and it now becomes neces- 
sary to determine the go vernmental equipment best 
suited to the furthering of such a system as is herein 
proposed. And it would seem that the most repre- 
sentative and democratic governing body would be 
one which would contain among its members repre- 
sentatives elected from each section of each depart- 
ment. This body might be called, as we have indi- 
cated on the chart, a central board of departments. 
Knowledge has been growing rapidly with the 
progress of organization, and those intimately con- 
nected with the administration of affairs even in 
the smallest department of organization must be 
brought into direct relationship with those in other 
departments in order that the work may be properly 
correlated and that the best results for the entire 
organization may be secured. In the proposed plan, 
as we have said, each section of each department 
would elect its representatives to the central board. 
Those operating in the departmental fields would be 
entitled by virtue of their position to be represented 
in the various administrative groups with which 



146 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

they are concerned. The departments of the pri- 
mary section would elect, the departments of the 
secondary section would elect, of the undergradu- 
ate and graduate sections also, and in this way the 
various bodies all would be correlated. In this way, 
too, would the diflSculties which now set primary 
groups warring against secondary groups and sec- 
ondary groups against college groups be, by repre- 
sentation, obliterated and out of it all would come 
the union of purposes, the resultant purpose being 
to further the interests, in every possible way and 
as expeditiously as capacity would admit, of every 
individual from the time of his entrance into the 
system to the time of his departure regardless of 
how low or how high that point of departure be. 

This central board of departments would, further- 
more, also have local autonomy. The policy and 
budget under which the administrative group would 
operate would be determined in turn by the muni- 
cipal foundation upon which the board of depart- 
ments itself would, in time, have official represen- 
tation. The board of departments in conjunction 
with the municipal foundation would then have the 
power of appointing to the supreme court of edu- 
cation suggested in an early chapter. The policy 
of the whole system would be determined by the 
analysis which would take place in the foundation. 
The local policies would also bear the influence 



DEPARTMENTALIZATION 147 

which the analysis by the foundation would fur- 
nish, but in each administrative unit the fullest 
autonomy could be allowed for the fitting of the 
equipment to the bent of the unit which it was to 
serve. 

This type of organization, so elastic and yet so 
purposeful, would, we believe, help to secure for the 
university unit the most efficient economy and the 
most beneficial results. Details of an organization 
such as this could be presented only as resultants of 
the analysis which would be provided in the first 
instance by the voluntary municipal foundation. 
Here again lack of details is not important. The 
important immediate necessity would seem to be 
that the beginning be made under proper leadership. 
By moving backward and forward between the 
highest educational provision and the lowest build- 
ing unit, to find our way by analysis downward or 
by synthesis upward, and by so doing to cope with 
the difficulties, one after another as they are encoun- 
tered, it is quite within reason to suppose that it 
might be possible to work out the proper solution 
for the entire problem. Day by day thereafter, diffi- 
culties would appear and disappear, and with the 
disappearance of each, progress would be made not 
only toward a delineation of the details of organiza- 
tion, but also toward the ultimate welfare of the 
community. All great evolutionary processes have 



148 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

come In a similar way and have, when held true to 
their purpose and vision, gradually, step by step, 
arrived at the ultimate toward which they were 
aiming. 



CHAPTER XIII 

CONCLUSION 

There is magic in the distance where the sea line meets the sky. 
It shall calljto singing seamen till the fount o' song b diy. 

Alfbed Notes 

The adequacy of a system of training must be 
gauged by the progress of the society which fosters it 
as well as by the fitness or unfitness of its products. 
It would be flying in the face of truth to contend that 
the American Nation has not progressed and that 
this progress has not been due to the diffusion of 
education and the dissemination of knowledge. It 
would be equally futile to argue concerning what 
advancements might have been made had we pos- 
sessed, up to the present, a different system. It is 
not purposed here to indulge in this species of 
a-priori reasoning. 

One fact is, however, clear and that is, that despite 
the national progress made through education, the 
tendency on the part of educators has ever been to 
make old bottles accommodate new wine quite re- 
gardless of either the size of the containers or of the 
quantity of the vintage. Little can be gained, how- 
ever, by attempting to measure the distance our 
educational system has lagged behind those leading 
and progressive institutions which have lifted this 



150 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Nation to its present stage of development. Nor are 
the causes of this sluggishness important save as 
they indicate obstacles still to be surmounted; prob- 
lems still to be solved. 

In an early chapter of this study we suggested five 
leading questions, the satisfactory answering of 
which would, we believe, indicate the way out of our 
present gross educational diflSculties. And our aim 
in the subsequent pages, despite our wanderings, 
has been ever toward the answering of these. 

To epitomize, we believe that the chief cause for 
the inadequacy of our present system of education 
in America is the neglect on the part of all educa- 
tional institutions to apply to themselves and to 
the system as a whole the laws of supply and de- 
mand. Coupled with this is their failure to give any 
large amount of consideration to regional variances 
and community bents, and their willingness, save 
when pressure has been exerted by external force, 
to allow the industries and business corporations to 
exploit their products during the early years follow- 
ing graduation. 

Growth and innovations have both contributed to 
the diflSculties encountered by the system in what- 
ever endeavors it has made to lead rather than fol- 
low in the onward pushing movements. The old 
containers have become quite too small: the new 
vintage quite too large. And so rapidly have the 



CONCLUSION 151 

problems multiplied that our educators generally 
have not been able to keep pace. Universities, 
especially, have been singularly unable to prescribe 
for themselves any satisfactory formulae for raising 
the average graduate to a position of maximum indi- 
viduality and usefulness. We have persisted in using 
the forms with which we started. We have not gen- 
erally admitted that those forms will no longer pro- 
vide for the development which we have gained by 
their use. 

It would be foolish to maintain that uninterest- 
ing and unfitted as is our average college graduate, 
he would have been better had he not passed 
through the educational mill. He is what he is both 
because of and in spite of the system. It is only in 
the exceptional case that a college education is a 
doubtful asset or a liability, and even in these cases 
the responsibility may rest jointly upon both the 
individual and the system. 

Our progress in education has truly been a curious 
one. We have gone from the hard and arbitrary cur- 
riculum, with its primary insistence upon training 
the memory and the consequent devitalization of 
valuable and beneficial subjects, to the free elective 
system, with its wholesale invitations to follow the 
paths of least resistance, back to a half-hearted com- 
promise somewhere between the two extremes, and 
we have arrived at what? Certainly at little more 



152 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

than an educational jumble. A maelstrom in which 
the maximum amount of theory and the minimum 
amount of practice whirl those who are thrown into 
it round and round for definitely fixed periods of 
time, to be cast out as flotsam for another period un- 
til corporate business and industrial organizations 
can accomplish that which could and should have 
been done by general education. We have been 
devoting our energies to the elevation of the degen- 
erate and the child of arrested development. We 
have, through our play schools, attempted to fit our 
children to enjoy life by feeding them upon the pap 
manufactured by theoretical educators possessing 
little knowledge of the vital sciences of life. And 
while this process has been going on and funds have 
been diverted and directed into these less profitable 
channels, those of the same generation, more fortu- 
nate in their mental equipment and eager to learn 
and to progress, have been chained to the dull and 
to the average and have been allowed to proceed 
only so fast as they were able to drag this burden 
with them. Search where we will, with the single 
exception possibly of Gary, there can be found few 
organized endeavors to facilitate the progress and 
early emergence of the brilliant students. So-called 
''trailer "sections which have been formed in some 
classes in our various universities into which are 
shunted the poorly equipped and less zealous stu- 



CONCLUSION 153 

dents in order that the progress of the more intel- 
ligent may not be hampered, while representing 
attempts to grapple with the problem have ever 
been looked upon with distrust. ** Consider what 
the effect of placing a student in a trailer section in 
any course would be upon that student," say the 
educators. ** What incentive can there be for a boy 
or girl so placed? " And here again the domination 
of the average and of the weakling over the robust 
and the exceptional is all too evident. **We are 
wasting time in our educational system" is an 
indictment which has rung forth in every educa- 
tional meeting during the past decade. **We are 
losing from between two to three years," declare 
state superintendents and college and university 
presidents. Yet what are we doing to remedy the 
situation? 

Probably the most popular remedy at the present 
time in the higher institutions of learning is the so- 
called ** junior college," just as a few years ago the 
popular remedy was the so-called "junior high 
school." These both are partial attempts at depart- 
mentalization and delineation in a small section of 
the system. At best both are but temporary make- 
shifts which can produce no lasting beneficial results. 
They may placate and palliate for the moment, but 
they will not substantially alleviate. 

Nothing short of complete delineation and com- 



154 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

prehensive departmentalization will solve the prob- 
lem. And the soundest method of solution, we be- 
lieve, is through a municipal foundation for the 
study and advancement of community education. 

We are convinced that the first steps toward the 
correction of our system would be for a group of 
influential men in a given community to organize 
for the purpose of forming such a foundation, to en- 
dow it with adequate funds with which to carry on 
its work, to choose a leader quite regardless of polit- 
ical affiliation, and to give him the utmost freedom 
to carry on his investigation, stipulating only that 
the members of the foundation be furnished from 
time to time with adequate reports of the prog- 
ress made. Then that the foundation as an early 
duty determine upon the boundaries of the given 
university unit and begin the collection of statistics 
covering all those resident within its confines and 
at the same time, for purposes of analysis, that it 
partition this given unit into a number of smaller 
units and that it ultimately correlate the results of 
its findings in these smaller units for the larger uni- 
versity units. In this way it could arrive at the de- 
mands of the unit and then it could attempt a 
realignment of the educational system for that unit, 
in order that an adequate supply might be furnished 
to meet the demands of the community. 

Simultaneously with this analysis should come an 



CONCLUSION 155 

analysis of the requisites for any given educational 
ultimate obtained through a careful canvass of, let 
us say, five hundred practitioners in each vocation. 
These requisites, when ascertained, should be 
drafted into the educational system in such a way 
as to delineate courses for all given vocations for 
which a demand exists. In addition to these requi- 
sites, other beneficial subjects should be grouped as 
electives in such a way as to be advantageously pur- 
sued in conjunction with the required courses. 

That further than this the foundation should at- 
tempt, through its bureau of analysis and its bureau 
of statistics, to furnish information whereby all in- 
stitutions engaged in education within the given 
unit might correlate their courses and unite in their 
endeavors to eliminate loss, to further the institu- 
tions and facilitate the emergence of all children 
applying for education. In addition, as the founda- 
tion increasingly proved its worth, this realignment 
should take the form suggested, namely, that de- 
partments should be made continuous throughout 
the whole plan from the lowest point in the primary 
school to the highest point in the graduate school. 
That above these departments there should be 
organized a central board of departments consist- 
ing of representatives from each segment of each 
department; that this central board should look for 
the information to direct the educational policy of 



156 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

the university unit to the municipal foundation. 
That above the municipal foundation and quite 
independent of it should be organized a supreme 
court of education for the purpose of dealing with 
any diflSculties that might arise in the board of 
departments and in the departments themselves. 
Each segment — which would correspond to our 
present primary, secondary, undergraduate, and 
post-graduate schools — should be granted reason- 
able autonomy through the central board, and this 
autonomic, democratic, and representative govern- 
ment should extend to the foundation and to the 
supreme court. In short, that in the matter of con- 
trol the broadest tested principles of democracy 
should be applied. 

It would be scarcely possible to place any limita- 
tion upon the activities of a municipal foundation 
since that organization would have for its purpose 
and sole aim the furthering of the interests of the 
entire community and the substantial increasing of 
the sum total of human happiness within the given 
university unit. The bureau of supply, which would 
form the third department of such a foundation, 
would, in the end, demonstrate the right of the 
foundation to power. If properly administered, it 
would prove most valuable and would furnish, by 
its statistics, properly trained individuals for any 
position within the given area. The bureau would 



CONCLUSION 157 

be able to furnish any organization requiring knowl- 
edge, complete statistics, at any time, covering the 
unit. Such a census, kept up to the minute, would, 
in itself, be a tremendous factor in furthering the 
interests of the community and of the Nation. 

The machinery required to operate such a system 
would be neither complex nor expensive. Even were 
this not the case, the results possible to be obtained 
from such a bureau as the bureau of statistics would 
alone be of such a character as to return to the com- 
munity interest many fold on either the initial in- 
vestment or the funds required for maintenance. In 
fact, it is quite conceivable that the saving in waste 
alone — that which now exists in any given com- 
munity or university unit — would be sujQBcient to 
maintain the machinery of the foundation for a con- 
siderable period of time. The possibilities of the 
whole unit plan and the foundation plan, solely as 
economic measures, seem boundless. The effects 
upon the institutions which would foster such foun- 
dations can likewise scarcely be estimated. We be- 
lieve that ultimately the institutions would come to 
hold the most important positions in the community 
and that the populace of the entire university unit 
would turn to the foundation not only as a source of 
information and guidance, but also as the active 
agent, increasing their own individual welfares. 

The educational equipment of our university unit 



158 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

would no longer be a thing detached, a thing dealing 
with but a small part of the population. It would 
hold within itself the future of the populace both 
collectively and individually. It would supply nor- 
mal demands, it would adjust diflBculties arising 
through sudden congestions in certain supply. In 
short, it would apply the principles of international- 
ism itself in a given area, and if in time the entire 
country came to be composed of such units as have 
been suggested, by the fullest cooperation between 
these units, supply could be transferred quickly and 
readily wherever sudden and abnormal demands 
existed. In times of peace its results would be these. 
In times of war the statistics which the bureaus of 
the various municipal foundations could furnish the 
Federal Government would be invaluable and would 
render the Nation the most efficiently organized in 
the world. As a preparedness measure alone, the 
plan commends itself to consideration, and yet, 
unlike most preparedness measures, this would carry 
no hampering of individuals' activities. 

To direct the members of the Nation into such 
fields of activity as actually exist in the demands, 
while possibly forcing more to elect ultimates which, 
in our present hit-or-miss plan, would not be elected, 
is not placing an injurious restriction upon the free- 
dom of the individual. Far better would it be for 
such a one to know that no demand existed for his 



CONCLUSION 159 

particular ultimate chosen, at the beginning of his 
educational career, than to discover that fact only 
after he had spent from fourteen to twenty-five 
years in preparing himself to fill a mythical place. 

The migratory element in our populace would not 
in the least interfere with the application of the 
principle. The doors of each university unit would 
be open, but each university unit would stand, far 
more than institutions stand at the present time, for 
emphasis upon the certain particular fields of learn- 
ing determined by the regional variances and the 
bents of the communities. Warring factions in edu- 
cation would be changed to cooperative forces and 
the aim of all would be seen to be the same, standing 
clear above individual difficulties and aspirations. 
Education, were such a plan put into operation, 
would become in truth an end in itself, rather than 
merely the means to an end. 

The University extension movement, which has 
gained vogue in the past few years, an attempt to 
bring universities, through a few of their profes- 
sional members, to the doors of those far removed 
from seats of learning, can never effectively solve 
the problem. Educational extension, not merely 
university extension is what is demanded — a prac- 
tical system that will further the interests of all and 
in increasing proportions as the individuals remain 
within it. Theoretical lecturers, sent out by depart- 



160 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

ments of university extension to those dissatisfied 
members of society who elect such courses, can never 
substantially increase the sum total of human hap- 
piness or greatly add even to the capacities of indi- 
viduals. University extension courses, like courses 
within the universities themselves, are, despite the 
youth of the extension movement, already caked 
with the crust of custom and tradition. Educational 
extension, not university extension, is the solution; 
and educational extension can be accomplished only 
by striking out boldly into uncharted seas. 

We must not content ourselves with any system 
which falls short of rendering the maximum amount 
of service to all who compose the Nation. Educa- 
tion for all must be the foundation upon which the 
sills of democracy rest. We must transcend petty 
difficulties and schemes propounded by theoretical 
exponents, schemes which redound only to their 
own credit and which further only their own in- 
terests. 

That system of education will alone be satisfac- 
tory which shall display the operations of the sound- 
est principles of economy, and which shall command 
for each part of the educational equipment the 
utmost respect of all. That system alone will func- 
tion to the fullest which shall take cognizance of the 
needs of every member of society and which shall 
place at the disposal of the populace all the inf orma- 



CONCLUSION 161 

tion which can be utilized in furthering the interests 
of each and every individual member. 

We believe that the course which America in 
company with other nations must pursue lies some- 
where in the direction which we have endeavored 
to indicate. We believe that immeasurable service 
and that freedom which is the inalienable right of 
man surely lies at the end of such a journey. The 
voyage may be long, it is true, the tides high, and 
the storms heavy, but the port is "well worth the 
cruise." Courage alone is required — the courage 
that defies convention and tradition, the courage 
that is born of faith that must ever firm the naviga- 
tor who pushes out into strange new waters and 
makes 

THE BEGINNING. 



SUPPLEMENT 



These are some hints towards what is in all education a chief necessity, 
the right government, or, shall I not say, the right obedience to the 
powers of the human soul. Itself is the dictator; the mind itself the 
awful oracle. All our powers, all our happiness, consist in our reception 
of its hints, which ever become clearer and grander as they are obeyed. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 

As suggested earlier in this volume, the purpose of 
its authors is not primarily to suggest means by 
which the American Nation may be divided into 
university units nor arbitrarily to set the boundaries 
of any such divisions. It is rather to state the eco- 
nomic principles which, we believe, could be applied 
to all communities with equal beneficial results, and, 
without professing accuracy to any marked degree, 

— since it should be clear to all by now that accu- 
racy, without accurate statistics, is impossible, and 
accurate statistics, we have shown, are not available, 

— to sketch, roughly and in broad outline, a plan 
for the reconstruction and realignment of the whole 
educational system and to make, so far as is possible, 
an application to the particular community in which 
this study had its inception. 

Pittsburgh, because of the development of its in- 
dustries and its disorderly growth during the past 
quarter of a century, perhaps furnishes us with as 
good an example as we could desire. 

It has been said that Pittsburgh is composed of a 
number of small towns, and in a measure this is true 

— perhaps more true of Pittsburgh than of some 



166 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

other cities which have grown with less rapidity. 
The Pittsburgh metropolitan district has been 
roughly defined as that area extending from the 
center of the city for a radius of approximately ten 
miles. Within this comparatively small radius, we 
find sixty-three more or less distinct communities; 
Aspinwall, Avalon, Bellevue, Ben Avon, Braddock, 
Bridgeville, Carnegie, Carrick, Cheswick, Clairton, 
Coraopolis, Crafton, Dormont, Dravosburg, Du- 
quesne, East McKeesport, East Pittsburgh, Edge- 
wood, Edgeworth, Elizabeth, Emsworth, Etna, Fin- 
leyville, Glassport, Glenfield, Greentree, Haysville, 
Heidelberg, Homestead, Ingram, Knoxville, Leets- 
dale, McKees Rocks, Millvale, Mount Oliver, Mun- 
hall, North Braddock, Oakdale, Oakmont, Osborne, 
Pitcairn, Port Vue, Rankin, St. Clair, Sewickley, 
Sharpsburg, Spring Garden, Springdale, Swissvale, 
Tarentum, Thornburg, Turtle Creek, Verona, Ver- 
sailles, Wall, Warrendale, West Elizabeth, West 
Homestead, Westview, Wexford, Whitaker, Wilkins- 
burg, and Wilmerding, not to mention Allegheny 
now incorporate as a part of Greater Pittsburgh, 
and generally known as the " North Side." 

Bordering this twenty -mile circle we find a score 
of other communities differing little in bents and 
exhibiting few regional variances from those in- 
cluded within the circle; Woodlawn, Ambridge, 
Aliquippa, Monessen, Donora, Beaver Falls, Roch- 



THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 167 

ester, New Brighton, New Kensington, and many 
others, all because of the similarity of their bents 
and their demands may be roughly termed the 
* * Pittsburgh Community . ' ' 

Were the unit plan put into operation, our uni- 
versity unit which would center in the Pittsburgh 
community would extend over a much larger area. 
It is conceivable that, owing to the nature and char- 
acter of the district, the Pittsburgh university unit 
would include that portion of the country lying be- 
tween latitudes 41° 25' and 39° 25' north and be- 
tween longitudes 75° 25' and 83° east; that is, 
roughly, extending from approximately the northern 
boundary of Clearfield County, Pennsylvania, to the 
southern boundary of Preston County, West Vir- 
ginia, and from the northern boundary of Crawford 
County, Ohio, to the southern boundary of Ross; 
from the Alleghany Mountains on the east nearly 
to Columbus on the west and as far south as Park- 
ersburg. West Virginia. The parts of this district 
present such strikingly similar characteristics that, 
in the gross, we may say that the bent of the whole 
area is the same. 

Hereafter, then, when the Pittsburgh community 
is mentioned, it must be remembered that not 
merely metropolitan Pittsburgh is designated, but 
rather all that territory lying within the suggested 
boundaries of the proposed Pittsburgh university 



168 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

unit. By metropolitan Pittsburgh is meant that 
district previously designated as lying within a ten- 
mile radius of the city itself. Whenever the city of 
Pittsburgh alone is named, the term applies only to 
the area bounded by the present city limits. These 
distinctions should be constantly kept in mind, 
since, in the remaining chapters of this volume, all 
three of these divisions are dealt with. 

As we have said, all parts of the Pittsburgh com- 
munity, including as it does portions of Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio, Maryland, and West Virginia, possess 
to a large degree the same outstanding physical 
characteristic. The natural resources underlying 
most of its region being the same, the character of 
the industries, largely dependent upon these natural 
resources is, in the gross, uniform. The whole com- 
munity, therefore, by virtue of its regional bent, pre- 
sents certain large special demands to the educa- 
tional system for supply. 

Accurate statistics covering the population of the 
Pittsburgh community are unfortunately not avail- 
able. Those furnished by the last Government census 
are seven years old and are, therefore, of little value. 
It is probable that the population of this area num- 
bers at present between five and seven million souls. 
In locating our boundaries, as suggested, this fact 
has received consideration. We believe that this 
body populace would not be too large a one to form 



THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 169 

our first university unit and that the compilation of 
statistics covering seven millions of people would 
not tax beyond its capacity or point of maximum 
efficiency the administrative equipment of a munici- 
pal foundation. 

Broadly speaking, the chief industries in this area 
are the steel and iron trades. Associated with these 
industries, because of similarity of materials, are 
the tin plate, the fire brick, the air brake, the win- 
dow glass, plate glass, electric machinery, table 
ware, aluminum, white lead, and radium industries. 
Next in importance possibly to the steel and iron are 
the associated industries of coal, coke, oil, and gas 
and numerous special industries in smaller numbers 
which have sprung up because of these resources of 
the region. The latest statistics available, those of 
1909, furnished by the local Chamber of Commerce, 
list these various small industries at 211. In addi- 
tion to these there were in that year 391 bakeries, 
248 tobacco manufacturers, 19 slaughtering and 
meat-packing houses, 324 printing and publishing 
establishments, 24 paint and varnish concerns, 20 
manufacturers of confectionery, 42 steam laundries, 
7 awning, tent, and sail manufacturing plants, 5 
rattan and willow ware manufactories, 15 brass and 
bronze, 41 brick and tile, 40 carriage and wagon, 3 
engraving, 7 flavoring extracts, 15 flour-mill and 
grist-mill products, 16 food preparations, 6 fur 



170 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

goods, 11 furniture and refrigerator, 3 galvanizing, 
31 ice, 6 jewelry, 12 leather goods, 6 leather, tanning, 
currying, and finishing, 8 distilled liquors, 28 malt 
liquors, 86 lumber and timber products, 36 marble 
and stone, 3 millinery and lace, 53 mineral and soda 
waters, 13 models and patterns, 39 druggists' prep- 
arations, 6 photo-engraving, 8 fire-clay products, 8 
shipbuilding and boatbuilding, 11 soap, 11 statuary 
and art goods, 9 surgical appliances and artificial 
limbs, 5 wall plaster manufactories, and in addition 
numerous pickHng and preserving plants, one of 
which, the largest of its kind in the world, furnishes 
employment for approximately four thousand peo- 
ple. These few obsolete statistics culled from the 
mass indicate the gross industrial characteristics of 
metropolitan Pittsburgh. 

To supply the demands of these industries and 
the unmentioned others, Pittsburgh proper has, 
according to the latest statistics available, 56 pri- 
mary parochial schools, 125 primary public schools, 
1 parochial secondary school, 2 industrial schools, 12 
private schools, 11 commercial schools, 3 theological 
seminaries, 1 college, 1 technical school, and 2 uni- 
versities, a total of 219 more or less distinct pieces 
of machinery forming the educational equipment 
of the district. i 

The absolute accuracy of these figures cannot be 
vouched for. Repeated attempts at authentication 



THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 171 

failed to reveal any one place in the city of Pitts- 
burgh or any one organization possessing full data 
concerning the number of schools and the character 
of the same. The local board of education did, of 
course, promptly furnish figures covering the schools 
immediately under its jurisdiction, and stated fur- 
ther than this that, since it had no jurisdiction over 
other schools, it had no knowledge of the kind or 
number of those in existence. No better example of 
the lack of coordination and cooperation could be 
desired. Nor is this any more true in the case of 
Pittsburgh than in the case of other cities. Boards 
of education know nothing about that educational 
equipment over which they exercise no authority, 
and appear to care even less. As a result duplica- 
tion and consequent waste through ignorance in- 
evitably follow. 

Impossible as it was to secure accurate statistics 
concerning the educational equipment of the city of 
Pittsburgh alone, even more impossible was it to 
gather statistics covering the educational equip- 
ment now existing within the roughly defined bound- 
aries of our proposed university unit, the Pitts- 
burgh community. 

Such wholesale lack of accurate knowledge can 
only indicate that the educational business is con- 
ducted without any general stock-taking and with- 
out any reckoning of either assets or liabilities. It is 



172 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

scarcely possible to imagine a business organization 
operating in this way. If an enterprise undertook 
to do so, however, it would in all probability operate 
with no more success and with no greater economy 
than does our present educational business. In short, 
the educational system in our municipalities, of 
which that operating in Pittsburgh is a fair example, 
is a disorganized, uncorrelated jumble, all variety 
and no unity, and as unlovely when contemplated 
in this light as it is inefficient. 

However, let us return once more to the gross 
physical characteristics of our Pittsburgh commu- 
nity, in order that we may ask, quite apart from any 
question of organization, how has the educational 
system reckoned with these? The answer is not 
difficult to find. The curricula of the Pittsburgh 
public schools show few variances, in fact, none of 
importance from those operating in the public 
schools of other communities not possessing an 
industrial bent. Nor does further search reveal any 
organized endeavor to shape by special emphasis 
the output of the schools definitely to qualify for 
specialized early vocational service. The truth is 
forced that while the bent of the Pittsburgh com- 
munity has been rapidly developing, the educational 
system has virtually remained stationary. 

But, argue the protagonists of the present system, 
the bents of communities are constantly changing. 



THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 173 

Consider St. Louis, Chicago, and more to the imme- 
diate point, Detroit. Surely no educational system 
can properly function if it be continually changing 
to keep pace with the flux and flow of industries. If 
we admitted the soundness of this reasoning, which 
as the preceding chapters in this volume attest we 
by no means do, there would still remain this much 
to be said in way of direct rebuttal. Granted that 
communities do change in bent. The exhaustion of 
natural resources compels this in some cases. In 
others, the growth of new industries effects the mir- 
acle. This does not vitiate our indictment of the 
educational system. The system has been impervi- 
ous to influences other than change. In fact, it has 
constantly failed to reckon with either growth, 
evolution, or existence of regional bent. 

In recent years the automobile industries have 
changed materially the character of many of our 
Middle Western municipalities, particularly those 
cities on or near the Great Lakes. However, so far 
as can be ascertained, no marked changes have come 
in the system of education as a result of this indus- 
trial growth. Gary, of course, is an exception which 
must be noted. But it is questionable if the causes 
for the changes inaugurated in the school system of 
Gary can be traced solely and directly to the de- 
mands created with the establishment of the plants 
of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation which built the 



174 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

municipality. Certainly there are certain grains of 
truth in the statements of those who contend that 
our primary and secondary systems of education 
have not substantially furthered the progress of our 
communities by training for specialized early voca- 
tion. The vocational road which must be traveled 
by approximately ninety per cent of our populace 
in any municipality of size is strewn with innumer- 
able wrecks, the natural products of carelessness 
and ineflSciency in a system which takes little 
thought of what is its only tenable aim, namely, to 
produce an adequately equipped supply for a defi- 
nitely known demand. 

Consequently we cannot believe that to reckon 
with community bents by analyzing the individual 
ultimates represented in the communal demands, 
to delineate courses which shall fit for these ulti- 
miates, to departmentalize the educational system 
that the demands of the community may be fully 
supplied, to facilitate expansion to meet new de- 
mands whenever such appear, and retraction when- 
ever the market for certain supplies disappears, 
would be placing flexibility above sound economic 
eflSciency. Loss of years, energy, health, and lives 
we shall some day come to realize can be pre- 
vented only by reckoning with industrial flux and 
flow. 

Pittsburgh may be no worse off in respect to its 



THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 175 

system of education than any other municipahty of 
equal size. Unbiased scrutiny, however, leads us to 
believe that in some respects, at least, especially in 
correlation and cooperation in its educational work, 
the Pittsburgh metropolitan district, and likewise 
the Pittsburgh community, has fallen behind other 
progressive sections of the country. The results 
obtained by such a survey as that of education in 
the State of Vermont, conducted by the Carnegie 
Foundation, and by the survey of public schools in 
the city of Butte, Montana, lend weight to this 
belief. 

To remedy the evil in our formal system of educa- 
tion, unions have been formed among workmen 
themselves, to furnish the protection which the 
educational system has failed to give. These unions 
fix the years and the hours of labor and the char- 
acter of the work which shall educate the individual 
from his entrance as a novice to the time when he 
shall become a skilled journeyman in his trade. In 
other words, and especially is this true in the Pitts- 
burgh community, to supply the many demands of 
the industries, there has come into being, because 
of the failure of the formal educational system, an 
accessory educational system which takes the prod- 
ucts of the compulsory governmental institutions 
and forces upon them an additional period of instruc- 
tion and guidance that they may be fitted properly 



176 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

to perform their tasks. This education is carried on 
under the jurisdiction of practitioners within the 
industries themselves. From this accessory, indus- 
trial, educational system some are drafted back into 
the academic system, and at various points in the 
latter, individuals are drafted out again into the 
industries, but here again little cooperation is in 
evidence. The cooperative plan operating at present 
in the University of Pittsburgh is, to be sure, an 
attempt to correlate the two systems, and since it is 
working in the right direction, it may be productive 
of some good. But it falls far short of striking to the 
roots of the difficulties, and it can never wholly 
obtain all the results desired. The industrial system 
takes little thought, as a rule, of the preparation 
which the academic institutions give, and many of 
the academic institutions regard with ill favor, if 
they consider at all, the system which attempts to 
do the work which it should have done. 

No matter how far an individual has proceeded in 
the training furnished by the primary and secondary 
schools, he enters the industrial world usually at one 
point and must fulfill the unionized requirements 
before he can become a journeyman and a recognized 
practitioner. In every community and particularly 
in such an industrial community as Pittsburgh, this 
forms one of the most serious problems which the 
formal educational system has to face. If the aca- 



THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 177 

demic system could send to the industries men who 
could compete in an economic way successfully with 
those members of the unions possessing little formal 
educational training, the effects upon the unions 
themselves, to say nothing of the effects upon indi- 
viduals excreted, would be worth all the effort and 
the possible additional expenditure incurred by the 
inauguration of such a system. 

What is needed, of course, in the Pittsburgh com- 
munity is an application to the educational system 
of the fundamental principles of economics. As we 
attempt to grope our way through all the maze of 
difficulties and as we contemplate the waste of time, 
of effort, and of men, and the various systems of 
training such as are exemplified by those operative 
in the United States Steel Corporation and the 
Westinghouse plants, we come more and more surely 
with each attempt to the belief that a governmental 
educational system must, in order to be successful, 
take cognizance of the demands within the indus- 
tries for workmen of various kinds and must edu- 
cate, in such a way as to supply these demands, the 
children who come to it for instruction. If this were 
done, slowly but surely as the supply was provided, 
the unions would become more and more kindly dis- 
posed to the system and would come in time to 
accept its products. The realization would be forced 
that this output could powerfully strengthen the 



178 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

unions themselves in their endeavors to make the 
world a happier place in which to live. 

In all fairness, it must be borne in mind that the 
exploitation of the products of our schools, colleges, 
and universities by the industries, which take the 
form of such special courses given in manufacturing 
establishments as we have mentioned, is not a will- 
ful perversion. Exploitation has been forced by the 
failure of the system. It is reasonable to suppose 
that beneficial in a small way as these courses are, 
the industries would welcome any educational sys- 
tem which would make wholly unnecessary such 
specialized industrial training courses as are con- 
ducted by the industries at the present time. The 
advantages accruing to the manufacturers from 
securing men adequately equipped to assume at 
once a position of responsibility would, we believe, 
far outweigh any small monetary saving that is 
accomplished, at the present time, by a system, 
which constitutes, as it does, exploitation. The criti- 
cism of these courses lies certainly not at the doors 
of the industries, but goes back, as we have said 
before, to the formal system of education. 

The Pittsburgh community is primarily a com- 
munity with a particular industrial bent, and the 
Pittsburgh community needs a system of academic 
education which will not only render exploitation 
unnecessary, but will also actively apply sound 



THE PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY 179 

economic principles. And until this happens, this 
community, in common with other communities, 
will continue to remain the same disorderly, wasteful, 
and unwieldy monstrosity which it is at the present 
time. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE DEMANDS OP THE PITTSBURGH 
COMMUNITY 

No gross analysis of the demands of the city of 
Pittsburgh has ever been made, much less an analy- 
sis of the demands of the Pittsburgh community. 
The latest census of manufactures of the metro- 
politan district, by specified industries, was tabu- 
lated, as we have said, in 1912 and was taken in 1909. 
And even the reliability of these figures published 
by the local Chamber of Commerce may admit of 
reasonable questioning. 

The Chamber of Commerce, in its published re- 
port, made no attempt to designate other than de- 
mands in the large. For example, 102 individuals 
were listed as salaried employees in brass and bronze 
establishments, and 704 individuals were listed as 
wage-earners in the same concerns; 121 and 833 
respectively in confectionery manufacturing plants; 
and so on throughout the long list of specified indus- 
tries. Beyond this gross listing there has been, so 
far as we can ascertain, no analysis made of the 
diversified demands which even a manufacturing 
concern engaged in the production of confectionery 
would present to the educational system for supply. 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 181 

The flux and change of the demands of the commu- 
nity have never been reckoned with, and undoubtedly 
these demands have been modified each year during 
the period following the taking of these statistics. 
And the industries must in many ways have been 
fronted with the necessity for training individuals 
in new tasks, of the existence of which no educa- 
tional system has yet taken cognizance. 

We have already pointed out that the Pittsburgh 
community, because of its bent, presents special 
demands for men skilled in vocational work. How 
large a proportion of the population is required to 
supply these particular demands is at present un- 
known, again because of the lack of statistics. But 
in such a community as this, this specialized de- 
mand must, perforce, be extremely large; perhaps 
ninety per cent of the total population would be a 
fair estimate. 

We have further pointed out that the special de- 
mands of the Pittsburgh community are deter- 
mined by the outstanding features of its industries. 
To-day and for generations to come, these features 
of the industries will undoubtedly be those pre- 
sented because of the contents of the earth under- 
lying the community. Furthermore, it is quite 
within reason to assume that the bent of this region 
will remain practically the same for many years, at 
least until change is necessitated by the exhaustion 



182 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

of these resources which have given to the area its 
particular bent. 

All communities in countries which have gained 
civilization present certain demands to the educa- 
tional system for supply. The number of these 
demands increases or diminishes with the influx and 
outflow of population, but since they never quite 
disappear so long as the community persists, they 
may be designated as "staple." Every community 
presents staple demands for physicians, bankers, 
merchants, teachers, lawyers, ministers, etc., as well 
as for those who fill the earlier vocations. And while 
the movements of peoples exercise the major influ- 
ences upon these staples, regional variances also 
have their effect. Even the staple demands are for a 
regionally educated product. 

In addition to these staple demands common to 
all communities, there are in the community of Pitts- 
burgh various other special demands determined 
almost entirely by the bent of the district. For 
example, the resources and industries of the region 
make especially large demands for men trained in 
chemistry, physics, electricity, and biology: for men 
trained to care for the health and welfare of those 
who work in and develop the industries as well as 
for those trained to attack the various legal prob- 
lems which a congregation of people with special 
industrial interests presents. Of course, this is only 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 18S 

a rough general statement, yet the truth of it should 
be evident to any one conversant with the charac- 
teristics of the Pittsburgh district. 

It now becomes necessary for us to select from 
among the late vocations those which are most 
pressingly demanded by the Pittsburgh community, 
because of the character of its particular bent, and 
to weigh each, that we may determine which are 
worthy of attention by the University, and which 
are important enough to monopolize that attention. 
And here it may be said, should the classification 
seem arbitrary, that judgment has been formed only 
after long residence and more than two years of 
intensive study. Nor has the fact been forgotten 
that the designation of any one field as more im- 
portant than another ever offers, to those fond of 
arguments, an attractive opportunity for criticism. 
Be that as it may, without in the least wishing to 
engage in any discussion concerning the relative 
importance of the various late vocations, we believe, 
since the progress of any community depends, in 
the end, upon the health and well-being of those 
who form it, that still it can be said, in all truth, 
that one of the first duties of a university is to fur- 
nish an education for late vocationalists interested 
in the promotion of human welfare, and primarily 
in the furtherance of public health. 

In any large community, and particularly in the 



184 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

community of Pittsburgh, a school of medicine, of 
the first rank, is an essential. More than this, and in 
line with the basic principles underlying our pro- 
posal, we believe that a school of medicine, to func- 
tion properly, must hold as its ideal service for 
human welfare in its broadest conception. This con- 
ception means that our medical schools should do 
more than provide a large number of special practi- 
tioners such as we may call, for the time being, 
"visualizers." They should produce specialized 
groups — special practitioners in the art of medicine, 
specialized surgeons, specialized internalists, special- 
ized laboratory workers and inspectors. And further- 
more, and of vital importance, they should modify 
their characters in accordance with the suggestion 
made by the Carnegie Foundation; that is, each 
school of medicine should build its character on the 
peculiar opportunities opened to it by the nature of 
the area which surrounds it, or, in other words, each 
school should give the proper amount of considera- 
tion to regional variances and community bents. 

Tulane University of Louisiana, by placing major 
emphasis upon the study of tropical diseases, has 
already embarked upon such a course, as has the 
Johns Hopkins Medical School in focusing upon the 
provision of teachers in medicine. We are just at 
the beginning of this movement, the growth and 
development of which we believe to be inevitable — 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 185 

not only inevitable but also desirable. These changes 
which we are witnessing are in reality but the appli- 
cation in this special, late-vocational field of those 
principles which we advocate applying in every field 
of education. This being the case, it becomes neces- 
sary to consider the peculiar character which the 
regional variance and bent of the Pittsburgh com- 
munity demand that its medical equipment, partic- 
ularly the Medical School of the University of Pitts- 
burgh, should assume. And here, to be brief, we 
believe that adequate attention to the bent of the 
local community can be given by the Medical School 
of the University only by focusing upon that portion 
of the human-welfare problem presented by the 
occupational diseases attendant upon industries. 

We would suggest, therefore, that the Medical 
Department of the University of Pittsburgh accept, 
as its community-given privilege and duty, the study 
of occupational diseases; and that, in addition to 
this, as an accessory feature of the Medical Depart- 
ment, it emphasize development of medical and 
nursing agents trained in a social sense. 

Sickness in the broadest sense of the term always 
invades such territories as are permeated by organi- 
zations for the study of wage conditions, housing 
conditions, internal conditions, and the incorpora- 
tion of the foreign-born in the populace. And as a 
result there has come in modern times this demand 



186 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

for doctors .and nurses possessing the socital sense. 
This deniimd, while of conipanitively recent origin, 
lias nevertheless developed with extreme rapidity. 
As has so often happened before in emergencies, 
voluntary agents have here accepted and taken up 
tlie task of producing individuals so trained. Be- 
cause of this, and because our medical schools have 
quite neglected the field, the mass of such agents 
thus produced has been woefully lacking in the 
knowledge requisite for the satisfactory handling of 
public-health problems. Quite fittingly, therefore, 
the School of Medicine in the University of Pitts- 
burgh, in addition to producing various practitioners 
and research workers in the general field, might, in 
order to render the maxinuim service to the com- 
numity, add the training tJuit would inculcate in the 
minds of its students knowledge of the great social 
I)roblems with which they, as practitioners, will be 
required to deal. 

Most certainly, above all else, the health and 
welfare of a comnumity should be provided for, and 
adequate provision can be made only by placing the 
proper amount of emphasis upon the proper kind of 
medical and nursing instruction. To summarize, 
then, the demands of the Pittsburgh community in 
the field of medicine arc for a university medical 
school with a definite bent; namely, for one which 
shall devote the larger part of its attention to the 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 187 

study, prevention, and relief of occupational dis- 
eases, and at the same time for one which shall, in 
addition to giving its graduates special training in 
these diseases, give them such instruction as will 
produce that social sense without which their work 
can count little for community progress. 

Human welfare and public healLli, however, are 
not alone promoted by our departments of medicine. 
Associated with the contribution which these de- 
partments may make, there is always the contribu- 
tion which must be made by departments of law. 
Exactly the same analysis applies in law as has been 
applied in medicine. The production of those prop- 
erly trained in jurisprudence is of extreme impor- 
tance in a community with special industrial fea- 
tures. 

The community of Pittsburgh requires as a mat- 
ter of course numbers of general legal practitioners. 
But in addition to this and more to the point, it re- 
quires lawyers of peculiar instruction for every field 
of special work created by the special bent of the 
community. It has a need for lawyers with a knowl- 
edge of the problems associated with the rights of 
industries to the contents of the earth underlying 
the community. It requires practitioners instructed 
in the affording of protection to the inventions 
which are constantly born in an industrial commu- 
nity. It requires those trained by special instruction 



188 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

in patent law. As a matter of fact, the demands 
which the Pittsburgh community makes upon the 
legal field are almost as diversified as those which it 
makes in the medical. And furthermore, even in 
such a special province as that of patent law, 
it demands those who understand the problems 
presented by new discoveries made by research in 
chemistry, physics, electricity, and biology. 

Possibly of equal importance with the demands 
which the Pittsburgh community makes for men 
trained in that phase of law which concerns itself 
with scientific research and its products are the de- 
mands which it makes for those trained in other 
phases of legal education which have to do with 
wages, with the relations of organized labor to the 
industries, the relations of imported foreign popu- 
laces to their home country and to the Federal Gov- 
ernment, with the peculiar problems of living pre- 
sented by the incorporation of the foreign-born, 
with the protection of all immigrants from mal- 
practitioners who make capital out of the new- 
comer's lack of knowledge of conditions into which 
he has been imported. These and many more form 
a host of special problems, each of which presents its 
demands to a legal research division in the organ- 
ized department of law. Up to the present time no 
adequate equipment has been provided in Pitts- 
burgh to furnish a supply for such demands. The 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 189 

School of Law in the University which now attempts 
to do this is little more than a low-rate institution. 
Yet surely the provision of a supply of legally 
trained specialists is a task worthy of the attention 
of the University. 

In addition to these special demands for men 
trained in medicine and law, the Pittsburgh com- 
munity presents still others of supreme importance. 
These demands come largely from the industries 
and are for higher vocationalists trained in those 
sciences upon which the progress of the industries 
themselves depends. The bent of the Pittsburgh 
community forces these demands for those possess- 
ing knowledge first of chemistry, then of physics, 
then of electricity, and of biology. And basing these 
requirements in the sciences there is the ever-increas- 
ing demand for research and for research workers in 
the scientific and industrial fields. In fact, so pro- 
nounced is the bent of the region that these demands 
may be fittingly termed "Pittsburgh staples." 

Here we come at once to that great opportunity 
which peculiarly belongs to the University. The 
establishment of the Mellon Institute and School of 
Specific Industries marked a long step in progress in 
this direction. As a result, what is needed now is 
not so much physical equipment as the spirit of re- 
search — that spirit which should permeate any 
institution founded with research for its primary 



190 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

purpose, that spirit which should insist that such 
an institution project the highest ideals in chemistry 
and yet be not prodigal of its own rights and re- 
sources. This spirit, were it fostered in the Pitts- 
burgh community equipped as it is with the Mellon 
Institute, would insist that there should be made 
from the industries a return to the institution of 
funds to be utilized in pushing still farther into un- 
known fields. And in this respect it may be said 
that what is applicable to chemistry applies equally 
in physics, in electricity, and in biology. Biology 
to-day is after all but a department of chemistry, 
and who at the present time is able to place any 
limitation upon its province? It invades all depart- 
ments of human study. 

The analysis which we have suggested, while hav- 
ing its greatest bearing upon the early vocationalists 
or skilled laboring vocationalists, would have a most 
significant local application in the chemical field. 
One need only be mildly sensitive to industrial and 
scientific requirements to know that the most vital 
factor in the future of coal and oil and their by- 
products, in iron, in steel, and in gas, lies within the 
chemical room of each industrial plant. Industries 
have been slow to accept the innovation, but with 
the increasing knowledge of its necessity, the enthu- 
siasm has now become so pronounced that the de- 
mand for chemists has enormously increased. The 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 191 

industries are recognizing that analysis of deficien- 
cies, synthesis for better products, and experimenta- 
tion are most necessary to sustain industrial life. 

An examination of the chemical literature reveals 
how sound this judgment of the industries is. To- 
day we approach life through general and physical 
chemistry, radioactivity, electrochemistry, inorga- 
nic chemistry, analytical, chemistry mineralogical 
and geological chemistry, metallurgy and metal- 
lography, organic chemistry, biological chemistry, 
foods, water, sewage and sanitation, soils and fertil- 
izers, fermented and distilled liquors, pharmaceuti- 
cal chemistry, acids, alkalies, salts and sundries, 
glass and ceramics, cement and other building ma- 
terials, fuels, gas, tar and coke, petroleum, asphalt 
and wood products, cellulose and paper, explosives 
and explosions, dyes and textile chemistry, paints, 
varnishes and resins, fats, fatty oils and soaps, sugar, 
starch and gums, rubber and allied substances. It 
will be noted that over fifty per cent of these sub- 
jects for chemical research are necessary in the 
sustaining of industrial life. 

The community which is not alive, through both 
its academic and industrial branches of its educa- 
tional system, to the demands that are yearly being 
created by research, cannot hope to compete with 
other communities of like size. From every angle by 
which we have approached the local educational 



192 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

system we have come ultimately to this conclusion, 
that Pittsburgh has failed to father the research that 
must precede progress. Its industries have pro- 
gressed, it is true, but the expert chemists who have 
contributed to this progress have been, in large part, 
imported into the Pittsburgh community. 

For men trained in medicine, in law, and in chem- 
istry, then, the Pittsburgh community makes its 
most urgent demands. In the provision of a supply 
to meet such demands reside the greatest opportu- 
nities for the University. 

That we have not made special mention of either 
mining, dentistry, or the domestic vocations may 
seem an unpardonable oversight. The reason for 
this omission, however, is that we believe the sup- 
plying of demands in these vocations to be of second- 
ary importance; the task relegated to that position 
by the bent of the community and by the equipment 
which already exists in the district for the produc- 
tion of the supply. The demands in mining, for in- 
stance, are well cared for by the Carnegie Institute 
of Technology — in fact, far better cared for than the 
University can ever hope to provide for them, with 
the other greater problems demanding attention. 
The Carnegie Institute, with its equipment and now 
with its neighboring Federal Bureau of Mines, can 
be trusted to supply demands in this particular 
field. It would be fitting for the University to leave 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 193 

this work solely to these institutions. Dentistry 
may be looked upon as a department necessarily 
incorporated with a department of public welfare 
and included with the departments of medicine, 
nursing, and pharmacy. The training of students for 
the various domestic vocations as for mining and 
engineering should, we believe, be left to the Car- 
negie Institute of Technology already far more 
adequately equipped than the University for this 
work. 

The furnishing of a supply to meet the agricul- 
tural demands of the Pittsburgh community might 
well be the task of such institutions of special agri- 
cultural bent as would exist within the boundaries 
of the proposed university unit were those lines 
drawn. 

The great demand for administrators which is 
made by the Pittsburgh community and which has 
not been heretofore dealt with is entitled to special 
consideration. The outstanding obstacle in the way 
of providing administrators is the breadth of the 
field. The administrative vocational field is as broad 
as the whole field of education itself. Special equip- 
ment for each special administrative position has 
become a part of the modern requirements. Because 
of this, we do not feel competent to dictate even in 
mildly dogmatic terms what should be done with 
the problem, but it seems plausible that the training 



194 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

of business administrators can best be accomplished 
by making a thorough canvass of the practitioners 
and by allowing those most efficient in various ad- 
ministrative capacities to assist in the delineation of 
courses. Surely the practitioners of efficient business 
administration are, like the practitioners in the other 
late vocations, best fitted materially to assist in such 
a delineation. The determination of both requisites 
and electives, here as elsewhere, we believe, should 
be made by a majority vote of the practitioners. 
Also it would seem that, in the reconstruction of 
the educational system of any community, a special 
department for the presentation of subjects common 
to all administrative work would be a necessary 
correlative of each department. 

In many of our large industries the administrators 
have come up from the ranks of the technicians and 
the early vocationalists. Promotion has been mer- 
ited by the peculiar ability for administration and 
leadership which the individuals have displayed. 
Those who take modern courses of business admin- 
istration often fail and are shifted into other depart- 
ments because of their lack of technical knowledge 
required to accomplish the task which they have 
undertaken. Some there are who even go so far as 
to maintain that administrators are born, not made. 
In part this may be true. The administrative fac- 
ulty may be to some extent inherent, but it must 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 195 

also be true that education can be of service in de- 
veloping and training that faculty. Indeed, the 
problem is a complex one. And yet we believe that 
the day has come to make a beginning at a delinea- 
tion of courses by analysis, to cull information from 
those who are prominent in the various administra- 
tive fields, and to build our highway, which the feet 
of those who elect an administrative ultimate must 
follow, out of the material which those who have 
passed before can furnish. 

In the chapter dealing with delineation of courses, 
we have already endeavored to show that with this 
proposal there is no minimizing of the difficulties 
which would be encountered because successful men 
have not been asked to think in terms of educational 
equipment. But here again, let it be said that we 
still believe that were this process begun, it would 
not be long until men began to think in such terms. 
The practitioner has had little to say concerning the 
training of his voice, but if given the opportunity 
and urged to do so, it is quite within reason to be- 
lieve that he would soon welcome the opportunity 
to raise that voice both in defense and in condemna- 
tion of certain methods of training. 

It will be readily seen that we believe the oppor- 
tunity presented to the University of Pittsburgh by 
the demands of the Pittsburgh community is, first, 
to choose those departments which are of distinctly 



196 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

university character and which bulk largest in the 
demands, and devote its attention to these; second, 
in the broadest spirit, to allow for, and further, the 
development of those institutions of peculiar char- 
acter which fulfill the function and provide for rare 
demands; and third, to exert all its endeavors to 
correlate, to avoid duplication, waste, and needless 
competition. 

The equipment which exists in the Pittsburgh 
metropolitan district for the supplying of men 
trained to meet such special late-vocational de- 
mands as we have mentioned is far from adequate. 
The Mellon Institute in which industrial research is 
carried on was not founded primarily to train chem- 
ists for broad fields of work, but was instituted 
rather to aid the industries to become more efficient 
by utilizing waste and perfecting products and by- 
products. The Department of Chemistry in the 
University of Pittsburgh has from its inception been 
struggling against many odds. The lack of equip- 
ment, the lack of space, in many instances the lack 
of properly trained men, the latter lack the direct 
result of small salaries, have all operated against the 
growth of this department which should be one of 
the most serviceable and powerful in the institu- 
tion. The departments of chemistry maintained 
by other institutions in the district, regardless of 
how well organized they may be, exhibit no evidence 



PITTSBURGH COMMUNITY DEMANDS 197 

that the proper amount of emphasis has been placed 
upon this branch of education. 

What is true in the case of chemistry is equally 
true in the case of physics and the biological sci- 
ences. In other words, nowhere in the Pittsburgh 
metropolitan district is there a department of chem- 
istry, biology, or physics outstanding enough to be 
known to the members of the community or to a 
wider circle. If we allow our minds to travel to the 
city of Baltimore, what we are endeavoring to pre- 
sent will at once be clear. The moment Baltimore is 
mentioned, the work of Johns Hopkins University 
in the field of medicine comes to mind. The de- 
mands of Pittsburgh are of such a character that 
were these demands adequately supplied by local 
equipment, the mention of Pittsburgh would imme- 
diately suggest the opportunities open here for the 
study of chemistry and these other sciences. 

Pittsburgh may mean to the world steel, iron, 
coal, coke, oil, and gas, but the world recks not of 
the Pittsburgh educational equipment. This equip- 
ment should, however, mean to the world chemistry, 
physics, biological sciences and law in the gross. It 
should mean a community educational system based 
upon an analysis of the demands and the individual 
ultimates: a departmentalized educational system 
by means of which waste has been eliminated: a 
benign circle working, through a municipal founda- 



198 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

tion for the study and advancement of community 
education, to the industries through its bureaus of 
analysis, statistics, and supply: a source of informa- 
tion and therefore a source of power to the Federal 
Government. If this could be accomplished, in a 
city possessing such great potentialities, the fame of 
Pittsburgh's educational system would be as wide- 
spread and as merited as is the fame of its industrial 
accomplishments. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 

In the preceding chapters of this volume we have 
attempted to indicate a simple plan for applying 
the fundamental principles of economy to the edu- 
cational system. We have endeavored to show that 
such an application would result in a departmental- 
ization of the entire system, and in a delineation of 
courses running throughout it based upon an analy- 
sis of ultimates with a due regard for the laws of 
supply and demand, and the bent of the given com- 
munity. We have suggested further that the proper 
agents to employ in such an endeavor would be 
municipal foundations for the study and advance- 
ment of community education. We have raised the 
questions as to where the work of such foundations 
should begin and where such institutions should 
reside, and have briefly answered them with the 
assertion that the most fitting, and perhaps the only 
reasonable, place of residence for activities so large 
and so purposeful for service should be in the high- 
est, or what should be the highest, educational insti- 
tutions in the communities, namely, the universi- 
ties. We have offered as a reason for this assertion 
the fact that it is from these parts of our educational 



200 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

equipment that those who have elected the latest 
ultimates in the demands of the community pass out 
of the formal educational system. For this reason, if 
for no other, our universities should be the abiding- 
place of those institutions engaged in that research 
which must precede all important advance made 
by the community as a whole. Within these should 
be developed new alignments, proved feasible by 
research. From these should radiate a spirit of 
kindness and helpfulness and information pointing 
the way to the soundest line of progressive evolu- 
tion for the race. 

In the present chapter we will endeavor, so far as 
is possible, to sketch some of the effects which the 
application of these principles of economics would 
have were this application made to the University 
of Pittsburgh, arid, at the same time, consider 
some of the opportunities which the furthering 
of such a plan would open to that institution. It 
is, of course, inconceivable that the University of 
Pittsburgh or any other single university can edu- 
cate for the world. On the other hand, it is quite 
conceivable that the University of Pittsburgh can 
educate the world by educating for its own com- 
munity. 

The examination of the conditions in the local 
university made by the survey organization revealed 
how inadequately is that institution functioning at 



OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 201 

the present time. To summarize in this regard, let 
us begin with that portion of equipment dedicated 
to the fitting of those entering late vocations. Here 
the Graduate School, far more formidable in the 
printed catalogue than in reality, is able to keep 
alive only with the utmost difficulty. The introduc- 
tion into this field of an industrial department in 
graduate work has so perplexed the cultural group 
that, up to the present, they have been quite unable 
to establish any sound working basis upon which to 
build a graduate entity . More than this , the various 
schools feeding the graduate body are so dissociated 
that an individual, majoring in one subject, and 
calling for advice and guidance in the work which he 
must follow, finds himself tossed back and forth 
between these uncorrelated and competing groups. 
Proceeding to the next group of so-called 
** schools" within the University, Medicine, Law, 
Dentistry, and now struggling to enter, the School 
of Pharmacy, we find the same lack of coordination. 
The survey, in its process of analysis here, made a 
tabulation of the subjects taught within these 
schools. This tabulation revealed, in the first in- 
stance, gross extravagances: to wit, nearly all the 
subjects taught in the primary years of medicine, 
for example, are taught as well in the primary years 
of dentistry. Histology, physiology, pathology, 
chemistry, and others are duplicated. In pharmacy. 



202 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

we find again duplication in therapeutics, pharma- 
cology, physiology, and chemistry. In fact, every- 
where, duplication, lack of coordination and extrav- 
agance were in evidence: extravagance that could 
find no argument for its warrant save that of ease 
of administration as long as the University flounders 
under its present form of organization. 

By pressing still farther in our analysis to those 
schools which stand between the semi-graduate and 
secondary schools of the local institutions, we arrive 
at the conclusion that here attempts at departmen- 
talization have proceeded farthest. Here conditions 
within the University may be considered typical, in 
the main, of those which obtain elsewhere. In the 
University of Pittsburgh we have five so-called 
''undergraduate" schools — the College, the School 
of Education, the School of Economics, the School 
of Mines, and the School of Chemistry. These schools 
are interdependent, yet each, in varying degrees, 
duplicates the work of others. Each is filled with 
suspicion and fear lest another encroach in some way 
upon its own particular territory. The College feeds 
all. For instance, in a meager department of biology 
this school attempts to provide courses demanded 
by all the remaining undergraduate schools as well 
as those courses of special type demanded by the 
higher schools, and those leading through to post- 
graduate fields of endeavor. 



OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 203 

Quite apart from the effects which this lack of 
correlation, with its attendant duplication and 
wastefulness, has upon the budget are its effects 
upon legislation and progress. This is an aspect 
which cannot remain unmentioned. No advances 
can be made in these undergraduate schools without 
proposals going through the hands of a group of 
administrators in the school body, then through a 
group of University administrators, then through a 
board of trustees. Proposals for changes must follow 
this course. Truly the legislative way is a long and 
devious one, but the evil ends not here. It is as 
inequitable as it is cumbersome, for the legislation 
is at the mercy, first, of a biased, partisan group, 
second, of a jealous, dissociated group, and third, 
of a preoccupied, largely uninterested group. 

However, it is not our purpose here to indulge 
in criticisms. It is rather to call attention to the 
opportunities open to the University of Pittsburgh. 
Were departmentalization, such as has been sug- 
gested, a reality at the present time rather than a 
suggestion, many of the difficulties which have 
arisen because of the dissociated organization of the 
institution would be non-existent. Also with depart- 
mentalization, that motley group which to-day we 
call '* schools," each competing with the other, dupli- 
cating equipment and creating immeasurable waste, 
would be coordinated and the wastage and duplica- 



204. A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

tion prevented. In the graduate department alone, 
the accomplishment of departmentalization and 
reorganization, regardless of the amount of time 
required to extend the departmentalization through 
to the primary schools of the city and of the commu- 
nity, would bring advantages well worth all the ex- 
penditure of effort which might be demanded in 
the endeavor. 

By referring to the chart at page 137, we shall see 
that each subject of sufficient importance would 
form a department for the whole community and 
that this department would have its administrative 
head in the highest educational field. Under such 
a system the student entering at the bottom would 
find his emergence facilitated by the autonomy al- 
lowed within each department. Once such a student 
had placed himself in the hands of student guides, 
possibly under the general direction of the Univer- 
sity Registrar, his way would be made easy, at least 
to the extent that he would not be forced to cope 
with the unnecessary interference of the present 
system. He would become a student of an educa- 
tional system able to project him into a community 
adequately fitted to undertake his work in life and 
qualified to assume his communal responsibilities. 
Not only would the difficulties at present arising 
between the graduate and late-vocational or pro- 
fessional schools, as they are now called, fall away 



OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 205 

by departmentalization, but the extravagance 
caused by duplication here would also disappear. 
In the semi-graduate schools, if departmentaliza- 
tion were a reality, this prodigality and duplication 
would again be obviated. Those arguments, born 
of jealousy and suspicion, which waste so much of 
the time and thought of the present administrators 
and by so doing frustrate constructive legislation, 
would be abruptly closed. The time which is now 
spent in wrangling over school encroachments and 
school progress would be devoted to furthering the 
interests of the student by clearly defining a course 
for his pursuance from his entrance to his gradua- 
tion which would fit him to undertake his chosen 
task. 

Were the municipal foundation for the study and 
advancement of community education a reality and 
actually in residence at the University of Pittsburgh 
its early course in the local field would be clear. 
One of its first tasks would be to stop such duplica- 
tions as already exist as a result of the present faulty 
system of administration. Such a work, because 
of the hold which the establishment of so-called 
** schools" has obtained, would devolve upon the 
foundation as an imperative duty. The duplication 
already discovered in the course of this investiga- 
tion and the further plans for duplication of depart- 
ments which are known to be imminent are among 



206 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

the most serious menaces to the development of the 
local University as a whole and to the development 
of any adequate educational system for the com- 
munity. And herein lies one great opportunity for 
the University to place itself upon a sound basis of 
business eflSciency first, and by so doing become in 
its administrative departments a model of business 
administration, that it may be able to command the 
respect of well-conducted industrial organizations. 
No institution which fails to apply the soundest 
principles of organization can hope to command the 
respect or greatly further the interests of a commu- 
nity which demands, among other things, adminis- 
trators trained in the principles of scientific admin- 
istration and organization. Slipshod and slovenly 
methods of administration, congested and disorderly 
oflSces, and obvious evidences of waste and duplica- 
tion may not greatly hinder the development of a 
training school for clerks, provided the taxpaying 
community can be kept in ignorance of how great are 
the discrepancies between the theories taught and 
the practices followed. But how much more power- 
ful would such a school become were the principles 
which the student must, in order to achieve success, 
apply to that work for which he is being trained, 
applied within the walls of the school itself : that is 
to say, were the school placed on a sound economic 
and eflScient administrative basis. Surely if the 



OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 207 

function of the university is to educate, it must lead 
rather than follow, and it can only lead by preaching 
the best and by following its preachments. It must, 
in its organization, present to the community a model 
to which all members of the community interested in 
organization can turn for suggestion and guidance. 
Let us now consider for a moment the secondary 
schools which feed these schools of the University. 
Here the largest excretion of our populace takes 
place and here, during the past few years, the reor- 
ganizers have concerned themselves largely with 
that proportion of the student body which is so 
excreted. In an early chapter we have already dwelt 
somewhat at length upon this trend and the greater 
attention which has been given to the furthering of 
the interests of those forced by circumstances or 
inclination into training for an early vocation, en- 
trance to which must be made through the second- 
ary schools. This increased consideration given by 
these schools to vocational guidance, however inade- 
quately they may have coped with the problem, has 
unquestionably been proper. On the other hand, it is 
equally true that an important part of the duty of a 
secondary school, perhaps the highest duty it has 
to perform, is to hold to the same provision for the 
smaller percentage — those who desire to reach 
higher fields of learning; in other words, to facilitate 
the emergence of this ambitious and more fortunate 



208 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

smaller percentage. The old, absolute, pre-profes- 
sional ideal for the secondary schools was certainly 
productive of evil. A new, absolute, vocational idea 
would be equally disastrous. Both early vocational 
and pre-late vocational ultimates must be reckoned 
with. 

Another fact is outstanding One need only glance 
at the reports of the State Departments of Educa- 
tion throughout the country, or more particularly, 
for present purposes, the report of the Department 
of Education of the Commonwealth of Pennsylva- 
nia, to realize how numerous are the discrepancies 
existing between the best and the poorest of the 
secondary schools. And yet the University group of 
undergraduate schools, despite this, is compelled 
to accept, or rather from choice does accept, largely 
without discrimination, the output from all the sec- 
ondary schools no matter how poor in grade they be. 
At times, it is true, discriminations have been made 
against graduates of certain common schools, but 
an examination of the records in the office of the 
Registrar of the University showed that such were 
rare occurrences. Despite this fact, many of the 
secondary schools are distressed if the University 
attempts to raise its standards, and the University, 
at times, complains of the slowness with which the 
secondary schools meet the demands of higher 
standards. 



OPPORTUNITY FOR THE UNIVERSITY 209 

Here, once more, were departmentalization ap- 
plied throughout the educational system, such dis- 
crepancies existing in high schools and such dissen- 
sions between these schools and the higher institu- 
tions, into which they feed that smaller proportion 
of their products, would also disappear. And with 
the passing of these would go the waste which ac- 
companies the attempts of teachers to make the 
training presented in schools blanket entire incom- 
ing groups — groups which include among their 
members those trained in the best schools and those 
trained in the poorest. Courses not adapted to indi- 
vidual students would not be compulsorily forced 
upon a student, for his lack of receptors for these 
particular courses would have been discovered 
earlier and shortly after his entrance into those 
departments. 

At the risk of becoming monotonous by repeti- 
tion, let it again be said that a delineation of courses 
and departmentalization, if attempted eveli in the 
graduate schools and higher parts of our educational 
equipment, could not cease before it reached the 
very foundation of the entire system. The plan is, 
after all, but the application of the principles of 
modern organization and human economy to the 
educational system and is based upon economic laws 
of supply and demand. 

The opportunities open to the University of Pitts- 



210 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

burgh, were it to undertake such a venture, we are 
convinced, would, because of the opportunity for 
the broadest service, first, to the community itself 
and, second, to the Nation, be greater than those 
possessed by any other institution of learning in this 
country. Any success obtained would accrue not 
alone to the institution, for in proportion as was the 
institution benefited, in like proportion would bene- 
fits accrue to the community and to the Nation . The 
Pittsburgh University unit is, we believe, the largest 
single area east of the Mississippi still unsupplied 
with an adequate equipment for higher education. 
The demands of metropolitan Pittsburgh alone in 
the special fields mentioned would be sufficient, we 
believe, to furnish work for a powerful university. 
What greater opportunities could be desired 
for any university than these open to the Uni- 
versity of Pittsburgh — opportunities to further 
the welfare of all the members of the community; 
to increase, by assisting all rather than a few, the 
sum total of human happiness within the borders of 
its unit; to undertake intelligently and sympatheti- 
cally, first, the task of discovering how it can be of 
service, and second, how it can, through its own en- 
deavors, build its foundation on the specific needs 
existing in the district which it purposes prima- 
rily to serve! 



CHAPTER XVII 

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 

In concluding, the survey organization made the 
following general recommendations : — 

First : That a group of men, interested in further- 
ing the welfare of the Pittsburgh community, take 
upon themselves the duty of establishing a muni- 
cipal foundation for the study and advancement of 
community education. 

Second: That, if possible, this foundation be 
placed in residence at the University of Pitts- 
burgh. 

Third: That funds, adequate for beginning the 
work of making an analysis of the demands of the 
community, be provided. 

Fourth : That simultaneously with this analysis, 
a careful study of the present supply be made. 

Fifth : That the results of these studies be tabu- 
lated and published for the enlightenment of the 
community. 

Sixth: That a further analysis be made of the 
requisites of ultimates present in the demands, and 
that the results of this analysis be made public, in 
order that proper assistance may be given all edu- 
cational institutions operating within the area, to 



212 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

delineate courses which shall best fit for the ulti- 
mates existing in the demand. 

Seventh : That a study be made to delineate ad- 
ditional courses which are beneficial, in order that 
these may be grouped in such a way as to be advan- 
tageously elected. 

Eighth: That the foundation begin its work of 
departmentalization within the University itself, 
changing the present university organization and 
placing it upon a departmentalized basis as rapidly 
as can be accomplished without revolution and in- 
jury. 

Ninth : That through results obtained by depart- 
mentalization here, the University endeavor to ex- 
tend its departments through the secondary and 
primary schools. 

Tenth : That all effort be exerted to bring about 
a thorough departmentalization with the establish- 
ment ultimately of a board of departments and the 
application of a democratic representative form of 
government to the educational system of the unit. 

Eleventh : That the foundation through its knowl- 
edge gained develop a policy not only for the Uni- 
versity, but also for the entire system, which shall 
have for its primary consideration the supplying of 
the demands made by the bent of the community. 

Twelfth : That existing educational organizations 
be left as they are at the present time until sufficient 



GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 213 

knowledge has been gained by the foundation in- 
telligently to begin the work of realignment. 

Thirteenth : That every effort be put forth to se- 
cure the cooperation, not only of the local board of 
education, but of all organizations and bodies which 
have for their function the furthering of the inter- 
ests of the community, especially the Carnegie Insti- 
tute of Technology. 

Finally, the survey urges the making of a begin- 
ning, no matter how small that beginning be. Such • 
a beginning would not partake of the nature of an 
experiment, for the principles upon which the work 
of a municipal foundation for the study and ad- 
vancement of community education would be based 
have been tested in other fields of endeavor and 
found to be sound. The survey organization is not 
minimizing the obstacles which would of necessity 
be encountered. But it believes that, by steadily 
pursuing the course outlined, such difficulties would, 
one after another, be worn away, and that, in the 
course of time, with the increasing success of the 
foundation, the Pittsburgh community would come 
to regard its educational equipment as its most val- 
uable asset. Furthermore, each part of this equip- 
ment would command the highest respect of all the 
members of the community, not primarily because 
of its power, but rather because of the service which 
it would render. 



214 A NEW BASIS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS 

Provision for the health and welfare of the com- 
munity is but a small part of the programme which 
such a foundation would endeavor to carry out. Yet 
a community that provides itself with agents pos- 
sessing a social sense and trained to care for the 
health and welfare of its populace, and in addition 
provides preventive measures in the midst of pe- 
culiar industrial conditions, will, by virtue of these 
provisions alone, be the great community of the 
future. We believe, furthermore, that in each com- 
munity, were this example set by Pittsburgh, there 
would ultimately appear a group of men of single 
purpose whose intention would be to further the 
interests of their own community in the same way : 
a group which would recognize the fact that the 
only foundation for an educational system of the 
community is one which will stand any amount of 
superstructure and, while fixed in principle, be yet 
capable of expanding and retracting upon require- 
ment. The time will certainly come whenever such 
a group sees that the principles working through the 
vocational group are those which apply throughout 
the professional group as well, and that the line of 
demarkation between professional and non-profes- 
sional is, so far as fundamental principles are con- 
cerned, an indistinguishable one. Surely there re- 
sides in each community a group of men capable of 
undertaking such a project and willing to embrace 



GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 215 

such an opportunity for service. It only remains for 
one community to set the example and to prove by 
the results obtained the feasibility of the plan. 

We have already said, and let it be here reiterated, 
that the community of Pittsburgh, because of its 
almost unlimited resources, offers many advantages 
— possibly more advantages than does many an- 
other community — for the projection of such a 
plan. Regardless, however, of which community 
first makes the endeavor, that community which 
does will in a short time be far in the lead of any 
others which may come to embrace a similar oppor- 
tunity later when the advantages become more 
widely known. The road to complete success in 
any community would, of necessity, be a long one, 
but the distance to be traveled, in view of the 
immediate beneficial results which would be ob- 
tained, should not deter from the undertaking of 
the journey. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Baumann, Arthur Anthony. Persons and Politics of the 
Transition. Macmillan, London, 1916. xiv, 281 pp. 

2. Beckwith, Holmes. German Industrial Education and its 
Lessons for the United States. Bureau of Education, Bulle- 
tin, 1913, no. 19. 154 pp. 

3. Bloomfield, Meyer. Youth, School, and Vocation. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, Boston, 1915. xi, 273 pp. 

4. Bourne, Randolph, F. The Gary Schools. Houghton Mifflin 
Company, Boston, 1916. 204 pp. 

5. Brown, W. J. Underlying Principles of Modern Legislation. 
E. P. Button, New York, 1915. 319 pp. 

6. Bulletins. American Association of University Professors. 
Vol. I, part I, December, 1916. 42 pp. 

7. Education of the Immigrant. Bureau of Education, 

Bulletin, 1913, no. 31. 52 pp. 

8. Expressions on Education. Bureau of Education, 

Bulletin, 1913, no. 28. 39 pp. 

9. Reorganization of Secondary Education. Bureau of 

Education, Bulletin, 1913, no. 41. 80 pp. 

10. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 
Rules for the Admission of Institutions and for the Granting of 
Retiring Allowances. New York, 1913. 10 pp. 

11. Eighth Annual Report. New York, 1913. vi, 124 pp. 

12. Ninth Annual Report. New York, 1914. 154 pp. 

13. Education in Vermont. Bulletin, no. 7, 1914, New 

York. 241 pp. 

14. Cattell, J. McKeen. ed. University Control. The Science 
Press, New York and Garrison, New York, 1913. viii, 
482 pp. 

15. Cheyney, Edward P. *' Trustees and Faculty." School and 
Society, vol. 2, no. 49, December 4, 1915, pp. 793-806. 

16. Cole, C. D. H. The World of Labor. A Discussion of the 
Present and Future of Trade-Unionism. G. Bell & Sons, 
Ltd., London, 1913. 452 pp. 



218 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

17. Cubberley, Ellwood P. Public School Administration, 
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1916. xviii, 479 pp. 

18. State and County Educational Reorganization, 

Macmillan, New York, 1914, xx, 257 pp. 

19. Dawson, William Harbutt. Municipal Life and Government 
in Germany. Longmans, 1914. 524 pp. 

20. DeGobineau, Arthur. The Inequality of Human Races. 
William Heinemann, London. 233 pp. 

21. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. Macmillan, New 
York, 1916. xii, 434 pp. 

22. Eliot, Charles W. University Administration. Houghton 
Mifflin Co., Boston, 1908. 266 pp. 

23. "Establishment of a School of Hygiene and Public Health 
by the Rockefeller Foundation." Science, vol. xliii, no. 
1121, pp. 88^-90. 

24. Fife, R. H. The German Empire Between Two Wars. Mac- 
millan, New York. Chapter xvi, "The Rule of Cities." 

25. Foght, Harold W. The Educational System of Rural Den- 
mark. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, no. 58. 46 pp. 

26. Froebel, Frederick. Education of Man. D. Appleton & Co., 
New York, 1894. xxv, 332 pp. 

27. Garner, James Wilford. Introduction to Political Science. 
A Treatise on the Origin, Nature, Functions, and Organiza- 
tion of the State. American Book Company, New York, 
1910. 

28. Godfrey, HoUis. The Institutional Budget. Department of 
the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C., 
April, 1916. 16 pp. 

29. Hadley, Arthur T. Undercurrents in American Politics, 
Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. 185 pp. 

30. Harrison, Elizabeth. The Montessori Method and the Kinder- 
garten. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, no. 28. 

31. Holcombe, Arthur N. State Government in the United States, 
Macmillan, New York, 1916. xiii, 498 pp. 

32. HoUister, Horace A. The Administration of Education in a 
Democracy. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1914. 
383 pp. 

33. Hughes, R. E. The MaJdng of Citizens. A Study in Compara- 
tive Education. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1915. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 

34. Jones, George Ellis. Training in Education, University of 
Pittsburgh, Bulletin, vol. xii, no. 17, 1916. 113 pp. 

35. Kerschensteiner, Georg. Education for Citizenship. Rand 
McNally & Co., Chicago, 1911. 133 pp. 

36. A Comparison of Public Education in Germany and 

in the United States, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, 
no. 24. 15 pp. 

37. Kingsley, Clarence D. College Entrance Requirements. 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, no. 7. 110 pp. 

38. Lyle, W. T. Economy in the Use of Class Rooms at Lafayette 
College. Bulletin of the Society for the Promotion of 
Engineering Education, vol. vi, no. 5, Lancaster, Pa., Janu- 
ary, 1916, pp. 315-25. 

69. Economy in the Use of Class Rooms at Lafayette CoUegCy 
Discussion on. Bulletin of the Society for the Promotion of 
Engineering Education, vol. vi, no. 5, Lancaster, Pa., Janu- 
ary, 1916, pp. 346-48. 

40. Macy, Jesse, and Gannaway, John W. Comparative Free 
Government. Macmillan, New York, 1915. xviii, 754 pp. 

41. Mann, C. R. Comparative Study of Carnegie Institute of 
Technology and the University of Pittsburgh. Report. Un- 
published. 31 pp. 

42. McCann, Mathew B. The Fitchburg Plan of Cooperative 
Industrial Education. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913» 
whole no. 561. 28 pp. 

43. Owen, William Baxter. The Humanities in the Education of 
the Future. Sherman French & Co., Boston, 1912. 187 pp. 

44. Parker. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Ginn & Com- 
pany, Boston, 1915. xxv, 529 pp. 

45. Perry, Arthur Clarence. Modern Use of the School Plant. 
Russell Sage Foundation, Survey Association, Inc., New 
York, 1915. xiii, 423 pp. 

46. Proceedings, Association of American Medical Colleges, 
Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting, February 17, 1915. 116 pp. 

47. Proceedings, Association of American Universities, Seven- 
teenth Annual Conference. Published by the Association. 
72 pp. 

48. Quick, Robert Herbert. Essays on Educational Reforms, 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1896. xxxiv, 568 pp. 



220 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

49. Report, Commissioner of Education, 1913, vol. i. Gov- 
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1914. liv, 
931 pp. 

50. vol. II. Government Printing Office, Washington, 

D.C., 1914. vi, 700 pp. 

51. 1914, vol. I. Government Printing Office, Washing- 
ton, D.C., 1915. xxxviii, 810 pp. 

52. 1915, vol. I. Government Printing Office, Washing- 
ton, D.C., 1915. XX, 780 pp. 

53. Report of the Commissioners, Royal Commission on Indus- 
trial Training and Technical Education, C. H. Parmelee, 
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1913, parts i and ii. xvi, 
437 pp. 

54. part in, vol. i, xvii, pp. 443-1011. 

55. part iii, vol. ii, xxiv, pp. 1011-1633. 

56. part iv, xxv, pp. 1639-2354. 

57. Report, The President's, 1915-16. Cornell University, 
Official Publications, vol. vii, no. 17, Ithaca, New York, 
September, 1916. 78 pp., pp. i-lxxxi. 

58. Sanborn, Frank E. The Task for Teachers. Ohio State Uni- 
versity Proof-Sheets, pp. 406-12. 

59. Snedden, David. " The Achievements and Shortcomings of 
the American College." The School Review, vol. xviii, no. 6, 
June, 1910, pp. 384-94. 

60. — *'The College Man and Current Problems." III. 

*'The New Education," Harvard Illustrated Magazine, Jan- 
uary, 1913, vol. XIV, no. 4, pp. 2-7. 

61. "Fundamental Distinctions Between Liberal and 

Vocational Education." Proceedings, National Educational 
Association, St. Paul, Minn., July, 1914, pp. 150-61. 

62. Some Predictions as to the Future of Vocational Edu- 
cation. Bulletin, National Society for the Promotion of 
Industrial Education, no. 22, January, 1916, pp. 1-20. 

63. Snyder, Morton. "Schools a Target for Critics." New York 
Times, Sunday, September 24, 1916. 

64. Stewart, A. E., and Simmonds, V. S. Tuberculosis and In- 
fant Welfare. An Intensive Study of Eight City Squares. 
Tuberculosis League of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, 1916. 65 
pp. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 221 

65. Stowell, Ellery C. Diplomacy of the War of 191^. The 
Beginnings of the War. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 
1915. xvii, 728 pp. 

66. White, William Charles. A Unit Plan for Large Municipali- 
ties. Third Pennsylvania Conference of Tuberculosis Work- 
ers, Philadelphia, April 4, 1913. 3 pp. 



INDEX 



Acids, 191. 

Adenoids, Si. 

Administrators, demand for, 193, 194, 195. 

Air brakes, 169. 

Albumins, 56. 

Alkalies, 191. 

Alleghany Mountains, 167. 

Allegheny, 166. 

Alumni, records, 50; not entitled to special 
privileges, 101-02. 

Aluminum, 169. 

Ambridge, 166. 

America, 35, 43, 49, 50, 58, 59, 161. 

Analysis, of ultimates, 47-57, 145; of de- 
mands, 50, 138, 155, 180, 190, 211; of 
demands of a community, 51; purpose of, 
62; leads to, 53; feasibility of, 58; of com- 
munities, 59, 60, 63; methods of, 63; 
perplexities of, overcome, 64, 67; im- 
portance of, 71, 93. 

Anatomy, 125, 127. 

Apprenticeship, disappearance of, 8, 13, 17. 

Art goods manufacturers, 170. 

Artificial limbs, manufacturers of, 170. 

Asphalt, 191. 

Aspinwall, 166. 

Athens, 38. 

Autocracy, in boards of trustees, S3; in 
presidents, 34-35; evils of, how pre- 
vented, 95. 

Automobile industries, 173. 

Autonomy, municipal, 2, 3; in Germany, 
4; in America, 5; divisional, 54; in unit, 
65, 66, 67, 88, 107; local, and equipment, 
80, 92; in board of departments, 146, 156; 
in departments, 204. 

Avalon, 166. 

Awning manufacturers, 169. 

Bakeries, 169. 

Baltimore, 9. 

Basis, of educational reform, 47; far edu- 
cational system, 51; class distinction, 73; 
upon units might jointly operate, 93. 

Bathing, 81, 

Beaver Falls, 166. 

Bellevue, 166. 

Ben Avon, 166. 



Bent, of community, 17, 68-63; determined 
by, 60; determining factor in specializa- 
tion, 62, 67; and university, 69; differ- 
ences, 87, 89, 90; reckoning with, 92, 150, 
166; and curricula, 172; changing, 172, 
173; and medical equipment, 185. 

Bethlehem Steel Corporation, 173. 

Bibliography, 217-21. 

Biological chemistry, foundation of, 56. 

Biology, 138, 189, 190, 197; advances in, 
30, 31; research in, 32, 188; demands for 
men trained in, 182. 

Board of Departments, 145, 156, 212. 

Board of Education, in Pittsburgh, 171. 

Boards of trustees, composition of, 33; 
autocracy of, 34; as debating clubs, 35; 
function in past, 94; and municipal 
foundation, 113, 115; in University of 
Pittsburgh, 203. 

Boston, 59. 

Braddock, 166. 

Brass manufactures, 169; wage-earners 
in, 180. 

Bread lines, 15. 

Brick manufacturers, 169. 

Bridgeville, 166. 

Bronchitis, 80. 

Bronze manufactures, 169; wage-earners 
in, 180. 

Brooks, Phillips, 22. 

Bureau of Analysis, 118, 119, 155, 198. 

Bureau of Education, Federal, 114. 

Bureau of Statistics, 119, 155, 157, 198. 

Bureau of Supply, 119-20, 156, 198. 

Butte, Montana, 175. 

Calvarium, 125. 

Canada, Royal Commission of, 11. 

Cancer, 83. 

Carnegie, Pa., 166. 

Carnegie Foundation, 11; surveys, con- 
ducted by, 12, 175, 184. 

Carnegie Institute of Technology, 76, 77, 
78, 192, 193, 213. 

Carrick, 166. 

Cellulose, 191. 

Cement, 191. 

Census, 64, 157, 168, 180. 



224 



INDEX 



Ceramics, 191. 

Chamber of Commerce, 88, 169, 180. 

Charity aid, 10, 84. 

Charter, for foundation, 116. 

Chemical literature, 191. 

Chemistry, 126, 138, 188, 189, 197, 201, 
202; importance in study of human, 31; 
research in, 32; lesson drawn from, 47, 
66; effect of discoveries in, 125, 127; 
demands for men trained in, 182; and 
industries, 190. 

Cheswick, 166. 

Chicago, 69, 173. 

Cholera, 72. 

Christianity, 37. 

Citizenship, 45, 61, 137, 139. 

Clairton, 166. 

Classicism, end of, 42. 

Clearfield County, 167. 

Clothing, 47. 

Coal, 59, 169, 190, 197. 

Coke, 169, 191, 197. 

Colds, 80. 

Columbia University, 92, 106. 

Commercialism, end of, 42. 

Commission, Royal, on the Poor Laws and 
Relief of Distress, 15; quoted, 16. 

Commissioner of Education, 114. 

Communities, bent of, 17; formation of, 48; 
demands of, 48-60, 65; requisites of life, 
62, 63; analysis of, 65; reconstruction of 
equipment, 67; demands, analysis of, 58; 
agents in individualizing, 59; in Pitts- 
burgh, 59-60; waste in, 78, 79; and unit 
plan, 84; ultimates of, 86, 87; and prog- 
ress, 91; [demands, how supplied, 142, 
164; Pittsburgh, 167; staple demands in, 
182; and research, 191, 192; of the future, 
214, 215. 

Competition in universities, 21; in private 
schools, 75. 

Confectionery manufactures, 169; wage- 
earners in, 180, 

Confucianism, 27. 

Cooperative courses, 43, 176. 

Coraopolis, 166. 

Cornell University, 99. 

Correlation, 64, 57, 66, 67, 68, 75, 86-103, 
107, 108, 110, 123, 136, 154, 155; in 
Pittsburgh, 175. 

Counties, Clearfield, 167; Crawford, 167; 
Preston, 167; Ross, 167. 

Crafton, 166. 

Crawford County, 167. 

Cretinism, 32. 

Criminal, 66. 



Cultural group in education, 23; warfare 
with vocational group, 24-26; wed with 
vocational, 44, 46, 214; concessions of, 
61. 

Curricula, 60, 61, 151; of Pittsburgh's 
schools, 172. 

Dawson Harbutt, quoted, 4-5. 

Degenerate, 66, 162. 

Delineation of courses, 18, 20, 21. 29, 30, 
32, 93, 120, 123-134, 163, 165, 194, 195, 
199, 209, 211, 212. 

Demand, laws of, 49, 199, 209; analysis of, 
50, 67, 107; of community, 61-55, 68, 
121, 177; provision for special, 62; 
failure to recognize, 63, 174; staple, 70, 
93; agricultural, 193. 

Demands of Pittsburgh community, 180- 
98. 

Democracy, home of, 35; training citizens 
for, 36; safeguard of, 94; education and, 
96, 160; laws of, 97; soundness of prin- 
ciples, 145. 

Dentistry, 192, 193, 201. 

Departmentalization, 66-68, 93, 103, 113, 
129, 134, 135-48, 164, 174, 197, 199, 202, 
204, 205, 209, 212. 

Detroit, 69, 173. 

Diseases, infectious, social, parasitic, 80, 
81; cardiac, arterial, nephritic, 82; tropi- 
cal, 90, 184; occupational, 185, 187. 

Domestic vocations, 192, 193. 

Donora, 166. 

Dormont, 166, 

Dravosburg, 166. 

Drexel Institute, 28. 

Duncan, Dr. Robert Kennedy, 121. 

Duquesne, 166. 

Dyes, 191. 

East McKeesport, 166. 

East Pittsburgh, 166. 

Economy, 160. 

Edgewood, 166. 

Edgeworth, 166. 

Education, 10, 159; present general trend 
of, 11-24; specialized, 16; popular con- 
ception of, 17; chart showing trend of, 
19; present-day influences affecting, 25- 
36; of backward children, 30; effect of 
research in biology and chemistry on, 32; 
purpose in, 36, 37-46; definition of, 37; 
appraisal of, 38; ideals of, 38; John Mil- 
ton on, 39; and democracy, 160; boards 
of, 171; economy in, 177; and the ad- 
ministrative faculty, 196. 



INDEX 



225 



Education, compulsory, 12; result of, 12; 
effect of, 13, 20, 74. 

Education, vocational, 24, 50, 174; for 
surgery, 124, 125. 

Educational system, failure of, 12, 14, 60, 
149, 150; tests of, 12, 13, 49; results of, 
15; English, German, French, American, 
16; realignment of, 24, 55, 62; of the fu- 
ture, 40 ; questioned, 43, 172; inadequacy 
of, 43; combinations with industries, 43; 
indictment of, 44, 172, 173, 178; duty of, 
44, 62, 66, 72; gravity of attempting to 
alter, 45; burdens, 47; community de- 
mands on, 48, 49, 54; basis for, 51; func- 
tion, 52; use in eliminating the undesir- 
able, 57; uniformity in, 63; and the pri- 
vate school, 73-75; bent of, 89-91; im- 
portance of, 112; and specialization, 128; 
and time boundaries, 135-36; and trade 
unions, 175. 

Educational unit, function, 62. 

Electricity, 182, 188-90. 

Elizabeth, 166. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 22; quoted, 164. 

Emsworth, 166. 

Engineering, 50, 126, 193. 

English, 137, 139. 

Engraving, 169. 

Equipment, 199; of individual, 53; com- 
munity, 55; change, 56, 57, 63; for unit, 
64, 67, 68, 82; of university, 69; neces- 
sary amount of, how determined, 71; 
maladaptation of, 80, 81; of university 
unit, 89-92, 93, 158-59; and bureaus of 
foundation, 119, 120; common school, 
135; educational, in Pittsburgh, 170-72, 
213. 

Etna, 60, 166. 

Explosives, 191. 

Federal Bureau of Mines, 192. 

Federal Government, 88, 158, 198; as agent 
in education, 104; relation of foreigners 
to, 188. 

Fertilizers, 191. 

Finleyville, 166. 

Fire bricks, 169. 

Fire-clay products, 170. 

Flavoring extracts, manufacturers of, 169. 

Flour mills, 169. 

Food, 47, 81, 84; preparations, 169. 

Foundation, Municipal, for Study and 
Advancement of Community Education, 
87, 96, 104-122; one function of, 123, 
124, 129, 133, 134, 146, 147, 154, 156, 
157. 169, 198, 199, 205, 211, 213-15. 



Foundations, Carnegie, 11, 12, 105; bene- 
ficiaries of, 95; Russell Sage, 11, 105; 
Rockefeller, 92, 105, 106; Cleveland 
Foundation, 105; contributions of, 
106. 

France, 71, 127. 

Free elective system, 151. 

Froebel, 6, 31. 

Furniture manufacturers, 170. 

Furriers, 169. 

Galvanizing plants, 17C. 

Gary, 28, 92, 152, 173. 

Gas, 59, 169, 190, 191, 197. 

General Education Board, 11. 

Geography, 137. 

German, 138. 

Gilman, President, 9. 

Glass, 169. 

Glassport, 166. 

Glenfield, 166. 

Gonorrhea, 80. 

Government, aim of, 3; of university unit, 

94-103; subject of, 137; election in, 144; 

of educational system, 144-48; Emerson 

on, 164. 
Great Lakes, 173. 
Greentree, 166. 
Gums, 191. 

Happiness, how gained, 38, 39; short cuts 
to, 40, 41; aim in education, 42, 43; sum 
total increased, 44, 45, 156, 210; analysis 
to determine nature of, 47; dependence 
on group, 48, 49; how increased, 51, 52, 53, 
63; and mental achievement, 72; and the 
function of the university, 87; further- 
ance of, 120, 128, 133, 134; and trade 
unions, 178. 

Harvard, 7. 

Haysville, 166. 

Hazelwood, 60. 

Health, public, 41, 55, 64, 183, 214; appli- 
cation of unit plan to field of, 79-85; de- 
mands for men trained in, 182, 186; how 
promoted, 187. 

Heidelberg, 166. 

Herron Hill, 60. 

Histology, 201. 

History, 137. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 22. 

Holy Land, 38. 

Homestead, 60, 166. 

Hookworm, 33. 

Hygiene, 137. 

Hyperpituitarism, 32. 



226 



INDEX 



Ice plants, 170. 

Ideals, 37; of education, 38; of beauty and 
duty, 39, 40, 41. 

Inbreeding, in universities, 96. 

Independence, of man, 47, 48; limiting, 48. 

Industries, and educational system, 43; 
special courses in, 44; exploitation of uni- 
versity products by, 44, 150, 152, 178; 
development of, 49; analysis for groups, 
60; characterizing, of Pittsburgh, 69; 
progress of, under unit plan, 64; effect of 
foui^ding of new, 71; Louis Pasteur and, 
71; value of Municipal Foundation to, 
122; character of, in Pittsburgh, 166; 
chief, of Pittsburgh, 169, 170; and edu- 
cational system, 173, 175, 176; of Pitts- 
burgh, effect on demand, 181; and 
schools of medicine, 185; rights of, to 
resources, 187; and chemistry, 190. 

Infant feeding, 10, 80. 

Ingram, 166. 

Internationalism, building unit of, 1-10; 
relationships, 52, 67, 88, 111, 158. 

Iron, 68, 169, 190, 197. 

Jewelry, manufacturers of, 170. 
Johns Hopkins University, 9, 184. 
Junior college, 153, 
Junior high school, 18. 

Knights, 38. 
Knoxville, 166. 

Labor, organized, and law, 188. 

Lace manufacturers, 170. 

Laundries, 169. 

Law, 182, 187, 188; school of, in Pittsburgh, 

189, 197, 201. 
Lawrenceville, 60. 
Laws, of supply and demand, 49, 64, 65, 

199, 209; dearth of knowledge of, 133; 

effect on educational system, 160, 161; 

failure to reckon with, 174, 177. 
Leather goods manufacturers, 170. 
Leetsdale, 166. 
Liquors, distilled, manufacturers of, 170, 

191; malt, 170. 
Literature, chemical, 191. 
Lumber products, 170. 
Lungs, 126. 

Macaulay, Thomas B., quoted, 35. 

Machinery, electric, 169. 

McKees Rocks, 60, 166. 

Mann, Prof. C. R., 76; report of, quoted, 

77. 



Marble and stone works, 170. 

Marshall, John, 22. 

Maryland, 168. 

Mathematics, 137. 

Measles, 80. 

Meat packing houses, 169. 

Mediastinum, 126. 

Medicine, school of, 184; Johns Hopkins, 

184; University of Pittsburgh, 185, 201. 
Mellon Institute for Industrial Research, 

121, 122, 189, 190, 196. 
Metallography, 191. 
Metallurgy, 191. 
Milan, 2. 
Millinery, 170. 
Millvale, 166. 
Milton, John, 39. 

Mineral water manufacturers, 170. 
Mining, 192. 

Ministerial influence, 7, 33. 
Models and patterns, manufacturers of, 

170. 
Monessen, 166. 
Monks, 38. 
Montana, 175. 
Montessori, 6, 31. 
Mount Oliver, 166. 
Munhall, 166. 
Municipalities, 2, 3, 4, 6, 68; growth of, 49; 

and unit plan, 64; characteristics, 69, 60; 

causes for waste in, 76, 179; educational 

system of, 172; changing character of» 

173. 
Mumps, 80. 

New Brighton, 167. 

New Kensington, 167. 

New Orleans, 59. 

Newton School system, report on, quoted, 

15. 
New York, 28, 69, 107. 
North Braddock, 166. 
Noyes, Alfred, quoted, 149. 
Nurses, school, 81, 139, 186. 

Oakdale, 166. 
Oakmont, 166. 
Ohio, 167, 168. 
Oil, 59, 169, 190, 197. 
Osborne, 166. 

Paint manufacturers, 169. 
Panacea, 61. 
Parkersburgh, 167. 
Parthenon, 41. 
Pasteur, Louis, 71. 



INDEX 



227 



Pathology, 201. 

Pelvis, U5. 

Pennsylvania, University of, 7. 

Peritoneal cavity, 126. 

Pestalozzi, 6. 

Petroleum, 191. 

Pharmacology, 202. 

Pharmacy, 193, 201. 

Philosophy, changing social, 41. 

Physicians, school, 81, 139; demands for, 
182, 186. 

Physics, 138, 182, 188, 189, 190, 197. 

Physiology, 125, 127, 137, 201, 202. 

Pickling and preserving plants, 170. 

Pitcairn, 166. 

Pittsburgh, 59, 76; cosmopolitan district, 
60; the community of, 165-79; metropol- 
itan district defined, 166, 167, 168, 196; 
chief industries of, 169, 170; board of ed- 
ucation in, 171, 172; demands of com- 
munity of, 180-98; as example, 214; 
advantages of, 215. 

Pittsburgh, University of, 28, 76, 77, 78, 
122, 176, 183, 185, 186, 189, 192, 193, 
195; Department of Chemistry in, 196; 
opportunity for, 199-210; Graduate 
School, 201; residence for foundation, 
211. 

Plasmodium malariee, 33. 

Play schools, 31, 33, 162. 

Plebiscite, 71. 

Pneumonia, 80. 

Poets, 50. 

Politics, effect on educational institutions, 
25, 26. 

Population, of Pittsburgh community, 
168. 

Port Vue, 166. 

Practitioners, 100, 124, 134, 156, 184, 186, 
195; canvass of, 194. 

Preparedness, 158. 

Preston County, 167. 

Princeton, 7. 

Printing and publishing houses, 169. 

Private schools, 18, 73, 74, 75. 

Progress, how measured, 43; course of, 73; 
how marked, 91; important factor in, 
108; and revolution. 111; due to, 149; in 
education, 151; of community dependent 
upon, 183; long step in, 189; effect of 
duplication on, 203; school, 205. 

Public health, 41, 55, 64, 214; application 
of unit plan to 6eld of, 79-85, 182, 183, 
186; how promoted, 187. 

QuintiliaD, 39. 



Rabies, 72. 

Radioactivity, 191. 

Radium, 169. 

Rankin, 166. 

Rattan manufacturers, 169. 

Realignment, 62, 67, 119, 120, 155, 166, 

200, 213. 
Receptors, 128. 

Recommendations, general, 211-16. 
Refrigerator manufacturers, 170. 
Registrar, 204, 208. 
Research, 84, 186, 188, 189, 200. 
Resins, 191. 
Resources, of Pittsburgh, 168; effects of 

exhaustion of, 173, 181, 182; rights of 

industries to, 187, 188. 
Rochester, 166. 
Rockefeller, John D., 11. 
Romance Languages, 138. 
Ross County, 167. 
Rubber, 191. 
Rural schools, 17, 18. 

Sacramento, 61. 

Sage Foundation, Russell, 11. 

Sail manufacturers, 169. 

Salts, 191. 

San Francisco, 69. 

Sanitation, 191. 

Scarlet fever, 80. 

Scholarships, abuses, 25, 26. 

Schools, function of, 20. 

Schools, junior high, 18, 153; rural, 17, 18; 
private, 17, 18, 73-75, 170; engineering, 
60; public. 74; of Pittsburgh, 170. 

Schurman, President, quoted, 98, 99. 

Sewage, 191. 

Sewickley, 166. 

Sharpsburg, 166. 

Shelter, 47. 

Shipbuilding, 170. 

Slaughtering bouses, 169. 

Soap, 191. 

Soap manufacturers, 170. 

Soda-water manufacturers, 170. 

Soils, 191. 

Soup kitchens, 15. 

Space, utilization of, 28, 29. 

Sparta, 38. 

Specialists, 45; age of, 61, 184. 

Specialization, 138, 174, 178; determining 
factor in, 62; trend toward, 126, 128, 184. 

Springdale, 166. 

Spring garden, 168. 

Starch, 191. 

State aid, 27. 



228 



INDEX 



State Universities, political entanglements 
of, 26. 

Statistics. 51, 54, 57, 81, 93, 139, 156, 165, 
168-171, 181, 201, 211. 

Steel, 59, 169, 190, 197. 

Stein, Baron von, 4; quoted, 4. 

St. Clair, 166. 

St. Louis, 59, 173. 

Students, right to representation, 97. 

Sugar, 191. 

Supplement, 163-215. 

Supply, laws of, 49, 54, 55, 199, 209; dearth 
of knowledge of, 133; effect on educa- 
tional system, 150, 151, 177. 

Supreme Court of Education, 94-96, 121, 
146, 156. 

Surgery, 83, 124-27, 184. 

Surgical appliances, manufacturers of, 170. 

Surveys, educational, 11; of education in 
State of Vermont, 12, 175; of Medical 
and Legal education, 12; Mann, 76-78; 
Report of Dispensary Aid Society, 
Tuberculosis League of Pittsburgh, 84; 
of public schools in Butte, 175; Univer- 
sity of Pittsburgh, 200, 211. 

Suzzallo, Dr. Henry, quoted, 14, 16. 

Swissvale, 166. 

Syphilis, 80. 

Tableware, 169. 

Tanneries, 170. 

Tapeworm, 33. 

Tarentum, 166. 

Taxpayers, 29, 74, 99, 100, 101, 119, 206. 

Tent manufacturers, 169, 

Therapeutics, 202. 

Thornburg, 166. 

Tile manufacturers, 169. 

Tin plate, 169. 

Tobacco manufacturers, 169. 

Trades, iron and steel, 59, 169. 

Trade Unions, 13; domination of, 133, 175, 

177, 178. 
Trailer sections, 152, 153. 
Travelers, 59. 
Trichina spiralis, 33. 
Tropical diseases, 184. 
Tuberculosis, 10, 33, 80; and smallpox 

hospital, 81. 
Tulane University of Louisiana, 184. 
Turtle Creek, 166. 

Ultimates, choice of, 20, 39, 51; in educa- 
tion, 43, 44; analysis of, 47-57, 86, 199; 
individual, 51-54; of life, 56; varying, 57, 
135; and the educational system, 70-72, 



87; results following analysis of, 123, 124; 
selection of, 158. 

Unions, 13; domination of, 133; and educa- 
tional system, 175, 177, 178. 

United States, 58, 60, 114. 

United States Steel Corporation, 177. 

Unit plan, 3, 54, 63-72; one argument 
against success of, 66; wider application 
of, 73-85; attempts to apply in Rtts- 
burgh, 76; need for application, 78-82, 
89-103; and experiments, 105-06; in 
Pittsburgh community, 167-68. 

University extension, 159, 160. 

University, influence upon national 
thought, 6; government and administra- 
tion, 8, 98, 99; failure of, 8, 69, 151; duty 
of, 9, 10, 183; competition in, 21; politi- 
cal factor, 26; function of, 29; autocracy 
in, 34, 35, 61; how reorganized, 36; spe- 
cialization in, 61; as part of unit equip- 
ment, 68, 70; objections to unit plan, 69; 
as a private invader, 76; residence for 
Municipal Foundation, 87, 108; units, 
89-92, 96. 

University of Pennsylvania, 7. 

University of Pittsburgh, 28, 76, 77, 78, 
122, 176, 183, 185, 186, 189, 192, 193, 
195; Department of Chemistry in, 196; 
opportunity for, 199-210; Graduate 
School, 201; residence for Foundation, 
211. 

University unit, structure and governance, 
86-103, 114, 116, 154; of Pittsburgh, 
167. 

Utilitarianism, end of, 42. 

Variances, regional, 58-63, 150, 166; not 
obstacles, 62, 63, 67; in curricula, 172. 

Varnish manufacturers, 169. 

Venice, 2. 

Verona, 166. 

Versailles, 166. 

Visualizers, 184. 

Vocational groups in education, warfare 
with cultural group, 24-25; provision of 
teachers for, 29; wed with cultural, 44, 
45, 128, 214; reply to culturalists, 61. 

Vocationalism, broadening of concept of, 
21, 22, 23, 30. 

Vocational training, 50, 174, 178-207, 208; 
for surgery, 124, 125; demands for, in 
Pittsburgh, 181, 183, 189. 

Wagon manufacturers, 169. 

Wall, 166. 

Wall plaster manufacturers, 170. 



INDEX 



229 



War, 1, 10; impetus given to surgery by, 
127; and the Municipal Foundation, 158. 

Warrendale, 166. 

Waste, in municipalities, 75; by duplication 
of courses, 76, 78; saved by bureau of 
statistics, 157, 171; in education, 177; 
in municipalities, 179; utilization of, 196; 
elimination of, 197; in University of 
Pittsburgh, 201, 202, 203, 208. 

Water, 191. 

Wedgwood, Josiah, 22. 

Welfare public, 55, 157, 210; and census, 
65, 66; and the unit plan, 79, 82, 83; 
student, 139; demands for men trained 
in, 182, 186; how promoted, 187; and 
dentistry, 193. 



West Elizabeth, 166. 

West Homestead, 166. 

Westinghouse Company, 177. 

West View, 166. 

West Virginia, 167, 168. 

Wexford, 166. 

Whitaker, 166. 

White lead, 169. 

Whooping cough, 80. 

Wilkinsburg, 166. 

Willow-ware manufacturers, 169. 

Wilmerding, 166. 

Woodlawn, 166. 

Yale, 7. 



CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U . S . A 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



029 479 858 4 



"""^""'^"^""^''^'""""""'"""- 



